CHAPTER 7

Mechanism
of
Evolutionary Change
Biological Diversity

- The number and the kinds of

organisms living on Earth at a
particular time
Evolutionary Theory

- Is the scientific explanation of

the diversity of life.
 Mechanism of Evolutionary Change

Natural Selection
Fitness

- The ability of an individual to

survive and reproduce in a
specific environment.
NATURAL SELECTION
Individuals with characteristics
that are not suited to the
environment either die or live
with few offspring, whereas
individuals with characteristics
that are very much suited to the
environment survive and
reproduce successfully.
 Mechanism of Evolutionary Change

Principle of Descent
with Modification
 Over long periods of time, natural
selection produces organisms with
improved body structures and habitats.
As a result, present-day organisms are
different from their ancestors. This can
be explained by the principle of descent
with modification, wherein species
descend through generation with
several changes over time. This
principle also implies that organisms
are related to one another.
 Mechanism of Evolutionary Change

Principle of Common
Descent
 Another principle relating to evolution
is the principle of common descent,
which means that all organisms share
common ancestry.
 Mechanism of Evolutionary Change

Types of
Natural Selection
 Types of Natural Selection

Directional Selection
Directional Selection
Directional Selection happens when
a change in the environment causes a
change in the observable spectrum of
phenotypes.
Directional Selection
In this process, organisms with a
phenotype that is well suited to their
current environment are more likely
to survive.
Directional
Selection
One example can be
seen in the changes in
peppered moths
present in England in
the 18th and 19th
centuries. The original
population of peppered
moths was
predominantly light in
color, so they were able
to blend with light-
colored trees and
lichens in the
environment.
 Directional
Selection
However, as industries
developed, the trees
darkened because of the
soot coming from these
industries, so the light-
colored moths became
easier to spot. As a result,
they became easy prey.
Because of this change in
environment conditions,
there was a gradual shift
over time in their
phenotype-from light to
dark color-to increase
their chances of survival.
 Types of Natural Selection

Stabilizing Selection
Stabilizing Selection
Occurs when intermediate
phenotypes are more likely to survive
in the environment.
 Stabilizing
Selection

For example, in a
population of deer that
live in the woods,
those that blend well
with the forest are less
likely to be spotted by
predators.
 Types of Natural Selection

Disruptive or
Diversifying Selection
Disruptive or
Diversifying Selection

Occurs when extreme phenotypes are

more likely to adapt to the environment.
 Mechanism of Evolutionary Change

Artificial Selection
Artificial Selection
Nature provides the variation among
different organisms so that humans can
select the variation that are useful to them.
This can be done through a technique called
selective breeding.
Artificial Selection
This type of mechanism is done by
farmers and breeders. In this process,
individuals with desirable traits or
characteristics are bred to increase the
chances of having offspring with the same
desirable traits. With the help of artificial
selection, breeders are able to produce wide
range of plants and animals that look very
different from their ancestors.
Artificial Selection

Artificial selection is widely used today to

shape a variety of traits..
Nonrandom Mating
- Also contributes to the population change
from one generation to another. This is
described as the selected probability of
mating with another individual to the
population. Nonrandom mating may take two
forms,namely, inbreeding and outbreeding.
Inbreeding
- is when individuals are more likely
to mate with their close relatives from
their distant relatives.
Outbreeding
- Or assortative mating, happens
when individuals select distant
relatives than close relatives as their
partners.
Mechanism of Evolutionary Change

Mutation
Mutation
- Is the change in the structure of a
gene caused by alternations in the
DNA sequence of an organism.
Types of Mutation

Substitution
Substitution
- Occurs when the genetic codon has
one altered nitrogenous base.
 Effects of Substitution
 It may cause changes in the protein structure
because the alteration of the codons causes a
change in the amino acid produced.

 It may cause a silent mutation, wherein an

altered nitrogenous base still produces a codon
that encodes for the same amino acids.

E.g. Codons for proline

CCU, CCC, CCA and CCG
If the U in the CCU is changed to C,
resulting in a CCC codon, the codon will still code
for proline
Effects of Substitution

 It may change an amino-acid producing codon

into a STOP codon, causing a formation of an
incomplete protein. This can cause serious
effects.
Types of Mutation

Insertion
Insertion

- Characterized by the addition of an

extra set of base pairs to the genetic
material.
Types of Mutation

Deletion
Deletion
- Occurs when a set of base pairs in
the genetic material is omitted.
Types of Mutation

Frameshift
Frameshift
- Insertion and Deletion in the
genetic material cause another type
of mutation called frameshift.
- This happens when the information
is no longer parsed correctly,
resulting in the production of
useless proteins.
 Mutations may be either:

Neutral Mutation
and
Beneficial Mutation
Neutral Mutation
- Affects the organism’s phenotype but has
no impact on its survival or reproduction.
- One example is the change of eye color of
an organism. The phenotype is affected
but has no impact on the survival of the
organisms.
Beneficial Mutation

- Affects the phenotype of organisms,

resulting in an increase of their
chances of survival or reproduction.
Mechanism of Evolutionary Change

Recombination
Recombination
- Is simply a rearrangement of genes.
- The process naturally occurs during the
crossing over stage in meiosis, where there
is an exchange of DNA between homologous
chromosomes.
- Crossing over enables the offspring to have
new gene sequences, resulting in formation
of traits.
 The result of recombination is greater diversity on
the populations gene pool. Recombination itself is not
the major cause of evolution, but it can be a
contributing factor as transferring favorable genes
from one generation to another.
Mechanism of Evolutionary Change

Gene Flow
(Migration)
 Gene Flow
- Also known as migration.
- This happens when there is transfer of
genes from the gene pool of one
population to another.
Two types of Migration:

1. Emigration – happens when

organisms leave their habitat
2. Immigration – happens when
organisms enter another habitat
and live in it.

Both types affect the number of

alleles that are present in the
population
 Development of Evolutionary Thought

A Timeline of
Evolutionary Thought
 SCIENTISTS IDEAS, CONCEPTS, CONTRIBUTIONS

John Ray (1627-1705) He established the modern concept of a species,

noting that members of one species do not interbreed
with members of another species.

Carl Linnaeus/Carolus He developed the modern taxonomic system that is

Linnaeus (1707-1798) still used today

George Louis Leclerc, He wrote a 36-volume Histoire Naturelle (Natural

Comte de Buffon History) series. He contributed to the debate on the
(1707-1788) age of Earth, suggesting that our planet had initially
form in a molten state and that it's gradual cooling
must have taken far longer than 70,000 years. He
also considered the role of vestigial organs, creating a
possibility of species descending from earlier
organisms.
Erasmus Darwin He was aware that the modern organism are
(1731-1802) different from the fossils that scientists have
collected.

Georges Cuvier He studied and wrote books on comparative

(1769-1832) anatomy, which were extremely useful in
interpreting the remain of fossils. He classified
animals based on their body plans.

Jean-Baptiste He proposed that individuals were able to pass

Lamarck (1744- on their traits to their offspring.
1829)
James Hutton (1726-1797) He recognized that Earth is extremely old (more than billions
of years), and that there was no need for global catastrophes
to shape the surface of Earth. He was the proponent of
uniformitarianism, which states that the present geological
features of Earth are the results of gradual processes such as
erosion and sedimentation.

Charles Lyell (1797-1875) He considered the shaping of Earth's surface as a result of

gradual long-term natural changes. He also collected many
pieces of evidence to support the principle of uniformitarianism
and wrote about them in his book Principles of Geology

Charles Robert Darwin He came up with the idea that the best adapted organisms are
(1809-1882) those that can survive to breed and pass on their traits to their
offsprings.

-Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection as a coherent

explanation for the form and distribution of species in different
locations.

Alfred Russell Wallace Although he made an independent study on the origin of

(1823-1913) organisms, Wallace arrived at the same conclusion as
Darwin's: that organisms with favorable traits are those that
carry on to the next generation.
 Development of Evolutionary Thought

Charles Darwin
and His Theory of
Evolution
Charles Darwin
- contributed significant ideas on our current
understanding of evolution. He was born in
England on February 12, 1809. In 1831, Darwin
went aboard the H.M.S Beagle.

- His most famous travel involved a trip to the

Galapagos Island, composed of many small islands
located 1000 kilometers west of South America. The
islands have differing climates despite the proximity
of the islands with one another. What struck him the
most were his observations of several animals that
inhabited the islands.
Charles Darwin
- Darwin also tried to explain how evolution occurs
naturally. With the help of what he learned from
Thomas Malthus, an English economist. Darwin
realized that high birth rates and a shortage of life's
basic needs would eventually force organisms into
competition for resources.
 Development of Evolutionary Thought

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
and His Theory of
Evolution
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
- He proposed that all species descended from other
species. In 1809, Lamarck published his theory of
how organims changed over time. His main ideas
include that through selective use or dis-use of
organs, organisms may acquire or loose certain
traits during their lifetime
 Development of Evolutionary Thought

Theory of Use and

Disuse
Theory of Use and Disuse
- According to the theory of use and disuse,
organisms could alter the size, shape, or structure of
particular body parts or organs by continuously
using them in new ways.

- Example:
Lamarck proposed that giraffes used to have
short necks. However, their increased in population
caused a shortage in their food supply on the
ground; thus, they tried to eat the leaves on the
trees to survive. To be able to reach these leaves,
giraffes needed to stretch their necks, as Lamarck
proposed. Such continuous stretching over time
enabled the next generation of giraffes to have
longer necks.
Theory of Use and Disuse
- Another example of the theory of use and disuse
states that if an animal chooses not to use its
body part, that body part or organ would
eventually decrease in size for several generations
until it finally disappears.

- According to the theory, because ancestral snakes

did not use their feet, these body part eventually
became underdeveloped
 Development of Evolutionary Thought

Theory of Inheritance
of Acquired
Characteristics
Theory of Inheritance of
Acquired Characteristics
- states that organisms inherited their traits from
their parents, and that they may also pass them
on to the next generation of offspring

- Lamarck believed that the ancestors of elephants

had short trunks. As ancestral elephants struggled
for food and water, their trunks stretched to reach
the water and branches.Their offsprings eventually
inherited the trait for long trunks.
Development of Evolutionary Thought

Evidence of
Evolution
Biogeography

- Is the study of the distribution of plants and

animals on Earth.

- The distribution of organisms in an environment

can be used as an important tool for explaining
evolution
Fossils record

- contains preserved remains or evidence of ancient

organism.

- Fossils record provides strong evidence of the

history of life on the Earth.

- They also show how different groups of organisms

have changed over time.
Homology
- studying and comparing certain body parts of
different animals.

Embryology
- pieces of evidence involves the similarities in the
early development of various organisms
DNA/PROTEIN SEQUENCES

- The study of DNA and proteins sequencing is

important for identifying the evolution of organisms
on Earth. Similarities in DNA sequences among
organisms indicate their close relation with another.