SOLVING EQUATIONS

Direct and Inverse Processes

Types of Equations
• Linear Equations
• Polynomial Equations
• Multivariable Polynomial Equations
• Diophantine Equations
• Differential Equations
• Ordinary DEs – function of one independent variable and derivative
• Partial DEs – Involves multivariable functions and partial derivative
Processes
• Direct
• Given a set X and transformation f find

• Inverse
• Given find the X
• Closely related to invertibility of functions
• X and Y can be very general objects

Following Questions can be asked concerning these

processes.
Questions about Processes
• Does a given equation have any solution. EXISTENCE
• If so, does it have exactly one solution. UNIQUENESS
• What is the set in which solutions are required to live
Linear Equations
• Single variable
• Multi variable
• Linear Map: Ex.
• Ax = b
• Transform vector in to vector in using linear map A
Linear Equations - Questions
• Purely geometric interpretation of solving linear equations
• Purely algebraic interpretation
• Effect of permuting vector x and vector b
• Necessary and sufficient conditions for existence and
uniqueness properties of solutions in real numbers as well
as complex numbers.
• Effect of restricting linear map from more general GL(2) to
SL(2) groups. Special linear group have Det(A) = -1
Polynomials
• An equation with degree greater than 1 equated to 0.

• Existence and properties of solutions are of greatest

importance
• Intermediate value theorem helps make sense of
Existence criteria
• Root of lies between 1 and 2 from Intermediate value
theorem. It proves the existence of
• Insolubility in terms of radicals of Quintics and higher
Questions
• Scoeff = { Set of Coefficients }
• Sroots = { Set of roots }
• If we fix the space for Scoeff to a region in complex plane
such as unit disk. What is the effect on Sroots
• Effect of permutation of Scoeff on Sroots
• If we restrict Scoeff or Sroots to only prime numbers
• Is there any equivalence relation among polynomial
equations. Ex. Can I call two equations equivalent
• Polynomial equations with fractional dimensions
Multivariable polynomials
•(
• Solution is a set of triples (x,y,z)
• Complete set of (x,y,z) for an equation might or might not
be interesting
• If we assume the geometric interpretation such as
equation representing two dimensional surface in space
• Than ask qualitative questions about surface such as
• What shape it is and equivalent shapes – TOPOLOGY
• Solution set of simultaneous multivariable polynomials –
ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY
Nature of solutions
• Solution is a geometric object that makes two other
different geometric objects exactly same
• Any transformation on solution object should be
symmetric for equated objects
• List of equivalent objects as solution object such as
topologically equivalent surfaces
• If solution object replaced with equivalent object. How
does equated objects change
Diophantine Equations
• Name given to equations if one is looking for integer
solutions
• ALGEBRAIC NUMBER THEORY deals with study of
Diophantine equations
• Structure of solution set is studied in ARITHMETIC
GEOMETRY
• No computer program to possibly say YES or NO to a
Existence of solution for Diophantine equation
• where f(x) is cubic polynomial in x. Elliptic curves
Questions
• Solutions in where p is Mersenne prime
• Geometry of solution space when famous Diophantine
equations are equated
• Periodic polynomials and Diophantine equations or
decomposition of polynomials in periodic functions
• Solve Pythagoras equation in space and see if solution
set forms a group
• Transformations that preserve tangent angles
• Setup Diophantine equation with Monster group constants
and solve equation in space
Differential Equations
Algebraic Equations
Solution is either a number or point in
n dimensional space
Combination of basic arithmetical
operations to get the unknown
General solution can be represented
as formula as in closed form
Differential Equations
Solutions are functions
Combination of Integral and
Differentiation to get unknown
Closed form solutions are rarity even
for simpler differential equations
Linear Differential Equations
• Does not have products of functions and its derivatives
• Linear maps of functions
• Equation of simple harmonic motion(ODE) as well as heat
equation(PDE) are linear.
• Generalized as matrix equation of infinitely many
dimensions
• Links to linear algebra makes them much easier to solve.
• Fourier Analysis is useful tool for this
Linear Differential Equations
Non Linear Differential Equations
• Products of functions and their derivatives allowed.
• Solutions in closed form not possible
• Checking three aspects of solutions is general approach
• Existence of solutions
• Uniqueness of solutions
• Allowed space and properties of solutions
• Ex. Solution of is not possible in space of
exponential, trigonometric or polynomial functions
• Integrating the function is the only possible solution
• Normal Distribution
Non Linear DEs
• Three body problem: Trajectories of 3 bodies under
gravitational field. Ellipse is answer for 2 body problem
• Equations lead to theory of Chaos. Opens up avenues in
research of chaos and stability
• Some Interesting properties to look for
• Time dependence
• Whether solution dampens, blow up or remain constant over time
• These questions constitute asymptotic behavior of
solutions.Can be answered even if closed form not known
• Some non linear equations have symmetric solutions and are
known in closed form. Solitons