UNIT - II

DESIGN METHODS
• Creativity and Problem Solving
• Product Design Specifications
• Conceptual design
• Decision Theory
• Decision Tree
• Embodiment Design
• Detail Design
• Mathematical Modeling
• Simulation
• Geometric Modeling
• Finite Element Modeling
• Optimization
• Search Methods
• Geometric Programming
• Structural and Shape Optimization
Creativity And Problem Solving
 Problem Solving
• Problem solving is a mental process which is the concluding
part of the larger problem process that includes problem
finding and problem shaping where problem is defined as a
state of desire for the reaching of a definite goal from a
present condition that either is not directly moving toward
the goal, is far from it or needs more complex logic for
finding a missing description of conditions or steps toward
the goal.
• Problem solving has been defined as a higher-order
cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of
more routine or fundamental skills
 Problem Solving
Problem-solving techniques
These techniques are usually called problem solving strategies.
Some of these are:
• Abstraction: solving the problem in a model of the system
before applying it to the real system
• Analogy: using a solution that solved an analogous problem
• Brainstorming: (especially by using groups of people)
suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and
combining and developing them until an optimum solution is
found
• Lateral thinking: approaching solutions indirectly and creatively
• Fractionalization / Divide and conquer: breaking down a large,
complex problem into smaller, solvable problems
• Hypothesis testing: assuming a possible explanation to the
problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the
assumption
• Means-ends analysis: choosing an action at each step to move
closer to the goal
• Morphological analysis: assessing the output and interactions of
an entire system
• Reduction: transforming the problem into another problem for
which solutions exist
• Research: employing existing ideas or adapting existing
solutions to similar problems
• Root cause analysis: eliminating the cause of the problem
• Trial-and-error: testing possible solutions until the right one is
found
• Proof: try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. The
point where the proof fails will be the starting point for solving
it
 What is Creative Problem Solving Approach
• However what to do when the plane of knowledge has been totally
searched and logically expanded and the problem is still not
solved? This calls for creative problem solving approach.
• Creative Problem Solving is a method for approaching a problem
or a challenge in an imaginative and innovative way.
• It is a special form of problem solving in which the solution is
independently created rather than learned with assistance.
• Creative problem solving always involves creativity.
• Creative problem solving is a part of overall problem solving
Categories of Creative Problem Solving Techniques
1. Creativity techniques designed to shift a person's mental state
into one that fosters creativity….. Viz. One such popular
technique is to take a break and relax or sleep after intensively
trying to think of a solution.
2. Creativity techniques designed to reframe the problem. …. Viz,
reconsidering one's goals by asking "What am I really trying to
accomplish?" can lead to useful insights.
3. Creativity techniques designed to increase the quantity of fresh
ideas. …..This approach is based on the belief that a larger
number of ideas increase the chances that one of them has
value.
4. Creative-problem-solving techniques designed to efficiently
lead to a fresh perspective that causes a solution to become
obvious….. This category is useful for solving especially
challenging problems.
Some examples of the creative problem solving techniques /
approaches are as under:

A) TRIZ, which is also known as Theory of Inventive Problem

Solving (TIPS), was developed by Genrich Altshuller and his
colleagues -This method is designed to foster the creation and
development of patentable inventions, but is also useful for
creating non-product solutions.
B) Mind mapping is a creativity technique that both reframes the
situation and fosters creativity.
C) Brainstorming is a group activity designed to increase the
quantity of fresh ideas..
D) Edward De Bono’s concept of lateral thinking
v) Dismantling or fractionalisation of problem into parts – A big
problem may be difficult to diagnose and deal. However its
complexility can be reduced by dimantling / fractionalizing it into
smaller parts. Focus on smaller parts may help in thinking up
ideas for problem solving thus facilitating creativity.
vi) Reversal of Problem (By turning it around viz. inside-out,
upside-down or back to front) - This approach helps in thinking
up ideas from opposite / different prespective and thus helps in
finding new or different ideas for problem solving.
• The Creative Problem Solving Process (CPS), also known as the
Osborn-Parnes CPS process, was developed by Alex Osborn and Dr.
Sidney J. Parnes in the 1950s.
• Osborn-Parnes CPS process is different from other "creative
problem solving" methods that it uses both divergent and
convergent thinking during each process step, and not just when
generating ideas to solve the problem. Each step begins with
divergent thinking, a broad search for many alternatives. This is
followed by convergent thinking, the process of evaluating and
selecting.
• Thus CPS is a structured method for generating novel and useful
solutions to problems. It is flexible process as well.
• CPS follows three process stages, which match a person's natural
creative process, and six explicit steps.
What is Creative Problem Solving
Process
 What is Creative Problem Solving Process
1. Explore the Challenge –
OF - Objective Finding - Identify Goal, Wish or Challenge. 
It might be the initial dissatisfaction or a desire that opens the
door to using the CPS process.
FF -Fact Finding - Gather Data
Assess and review all the data that pertains to the situation at
hand. Who’s involved, what’s involved, when, where, and why
it’s important. Make a list of the facts and information, as well as
the more visceral hunches, feelings, perceptions, assumptions and
gossips around the situation. In this step, all the relevant data is
collected & taken into consideration to review the objective and
begin to innovate.
 What is Creative Problem Solving
Process
PF - Problem Finding - Clarify the Problem
In this step, we explore the facts and data to find all the
problems and challenges inherent in the situation, and all the
opportunities they represent. This is about making sure that we
are focusing on the right problem. It is possible to come up
with the right answer to the wrong problem. Re-define what we
want or what’s stopping us.
 What is Creative Problem Solving
Process
2. Generate Ideas
IF -Idea Finding
Generating ideas is much more than brainstorming. During
this step, be vigilant about deferring judgment and coming up
with wild, outrageous, out-of-the-box ideas. This is where you
explore ideas that are possible solutions. It’s also where you
need to stretch to make connections, take risks, and try new
combinations to find potentially innovative solutions.
 What is Creative Problem Solving
Process
3. Prepare for Action
SF - Solution Finding – Select and Strengthen Solutions
 First, try to strengthen and improve the best ideas
generated. Next, generate the criteria that needs to be
considered to evaluate the ideas for success. Apply that criteria
to the good ideas and decide which are most likely to solve the
redefined problem. The best idea needs to meet criteria that
makes it actionable before it becomes the solution. A creative
idea is not really useful if it could not be implemented.
 What is Creative Problem Solving
Process
AF - Acceptance Finding
In this step, look at who’s responsible, what has to be done
by when, and what resources are available in order to realize
this idea as a full-fledged, activated solution.
Product Design Specification
PDS in Design Process
Recognition
of Need

Becoming
Informed
 Market analysis
 Background study

Problem
Definition

Product Design
Specifications

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 PDS

• Proposed by Pugh
• It is NOT the final specifications/achievements
• It is a control document of what designers try to achieve
• It acts like a design checklist and applicable to all design
applications
• It is dynamic rather than static – can be improved,
changed to suit design requirements
• It defines the constraints/boundary of the design.

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Elements of PDS

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 PDS
• Performance – target, attainable values
• Environment – effects on product during manufacture  use, effects on environment
• Life in service – 7 days/week, 24hrs/day, @ X years
• Maintenance – maintenance philosophy, need for special tools, ease of maintenance
• Targeted production cost
• Competition – data from benchmarking, IP, info search
• Shipping – delivery method, lifting capability
• Packing – cost & method of packing
• Quantity – will affect other costs such as tooling, processes
• Manufacturing facility – in-house or vendor, support system, machinery

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• Size – affects user, cost, shipping & handling
• Weight - affects user, cost, shipping & handling
• Aesthetics – user perception or acceptence
• Materials
• Product Life Span – life in production line
• Standard and Regulations – government, BS/ISO/MS/DIN
• Ergonomics
• Customer – target customer
• Quality & Reliability – subjected to standards (BS, ISO, etc)
• Shelf Life – storage risks and problems
• Processes – processes involved, in-house facility/vendor
• Time-scales – period to complete the design

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• Time-scales – time needed to complete the development
• Testing – methods, facility, requirements/standards
• Safety – safety requirements
• Company Constraints – house, facility, cost
• Market Constraints – local conditions, full market knowledge
• Patents, literature & Product data – clash & IP laws
• Political & Social Implications – social unrest, rejection
• Legal – product liability legislation (product defects, defects of manufacture, defects of
design, etc)
• Installation – assembly consideration (stand alone, subsystem)
• Documentation – manual, user instructions, etc
• Disposal – environment.

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 Writing PDS Document
• It is a control document
• Should be clearly written
• Use sharp and definitive statements, NOT is essay form
• Try to quantify parameters or estimate a figure
• Vary your starting point
• Date and put your issue number
• Clearly document amendments

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Format of PDS

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 Conceptual Design
• Identification of customer needs
• Problem definition
• Gathering information
• Conceptualization
• scope selection
• Refinement of the PDS
 Embodiment Design
• Product architecture
• Configuration design of parts and components
• Parametric design of parts and components
 Conceptual Design

Define problem Gather Concept Evaluation of

information generation concept
Problem statement
Benchmarking Internet Brainstorming Decision matrices
QFD Patents Functional
PDS Trade literature decomposition
Project planning

Product Configuration Parametric Detail design

architecture design design
Detailed drawings
Arrangement of Prelim. selection of Robust design and specifications
physical elements material and mfg. Tolerances
to carry out Modeling and Final dimension
function sizing of parts DFM

Embodiment Design
Decision Theory/ Decision Tree
 Introduction to Decision Theory
• Decision making is an integral part of management
planning, organizing, controlling and motivation processes.
The decision maker selects one strategy (course of action)
over others depending on some criteria, like utility, sales,
cost or rate of return.
• Is used whenever an organization or an individual faces a
problem of decision making or dissatisfied with the
existing decisions or when alternative selection is
specified.
 Types of Decisions
• Strategic Decision
– Concerned with external environment of the organization.
• Administrative Decision
– Concerned with structuring and acquisition of the
organization’s resources so as to optimize the performance
of the organization.
• Operating Decision
– Concerned with day to day operations of the organization
such as pricing, production scheduling, inventory levels,
etc.
Elements related to all decisions
• Goals to be achieved: Objectives which the decision
maker wants to achieve by his actions
• The decision maker: Refers to an individual or an
organization
• Courses of action: Also called “Action” or “Decision
Alternatives”. They are under the control of decision
maker
• States of nature: Exhaustive list of possible future events.
Decision maker has no direct control over the occurrence
of particular event.
 Elements related to all decisions
• The preference or value system: Criteria that the decision
maker uses in making a choice of the best course of action.
• Payoff: Effectiveness associated with specified combination of
a course of action and state of nature. Also known as profits
or conditional values.
• Opportunity loss table: Incurred due to failure of not
adopting most favorable course of action or strategy. Found
separately for each state of nature.
 Types of environment

• Decision making under certainty

• Decision making under risk
• Decision making under uncertainty
• Decision making under conflict (Game Theory)
 Decision Tree
• A decision tree is a decision support tool that uses a tree-like
graph or model of decisions and their possible consequences,
including chance event outcomes, resource costs, and utility.
It is one way to display an algorithm. Decision trees are
commonly used in operations research, specifically in decision
analysis, to help identify a strategy most likely to reach a goal.
Another use of decision trees is as a descriptive means for
calculating conditional probabilities. When the decisions or
consequences are modelled by computational verb, then we
call the decision tree a computational verb decision tree
A decision Tree consists of 3 types of nodes:-

1. Decision nodes - commonly represented by

squares
2. Chance nodes - represented by circles
3. End nodes - represented by triangles
• A decision tree has only burst nodes (splitting
paths) but no sink nodes (converging paths).
 Advantages
Decision trees have several advantages:
Decision trees:
• Are simple to understand and interpret. People are able to understand
decision tree models after a brief explanation.
• Have value even with little hard data. Important insights can be
generated based on experts describing a situation (its alternatives,
probabilities, and costs) and their preferences for outcomes.
• Use a white box model. If a given result is provided by a model, the
explanation for the result is easily replicated by simple math.
 How to Draw a Decision Tree
• You start a Decision Tree with a decision
that you need to make.
• Draw a small square to represent this
towards the left of a large piece of paper.
• From this box draw out lines towards the
right for each possible solution, and write
that solution along the line.
• At the end of each line, consider the
results. If the result of taking that decision
is uncertain, draw a small circle. If the
result is another decision that you need to
make, draw another square. Write the
decision or factor above the square or
circle. If you have completed the solution
at the end of the line, just leave it blank.
• Keep on doing this until you have drawn
out as many of the possible outcomes and
decisions as you can see leading on from
the original decisions.
• `
 Calculating Tree Values

• Start by assigning a cash value or score to

each possible outcome. Estimate how
much you think it would be worth to you if
that outcome came about.
• Next look at each circle (representing an
uncertainty point) and estimate the
probability of each outcome.
 Mathematical Modeling
• In mathematical modeling the components of a system are represented
by idealized elements that have the essential characteristics of the real
components and whose behavior can be described by mathematical
equations. However, it must always be understood that a model is an
abstraction of the real world. You have been exposed to many examples
of simple mathematical models in your engineering courses, but
modeling is a highly individualized art. Skill in modeling comes from the
ability to devise simple yet meaningful models and to have sufficient
breadth of knowledge and experience to know when the model may be
leading to unrealistic results.
The Model-Building Process
• The following is a listing of the general steps required to build a symbolic
design model.

 Problem statement 1. : Decide what it is you need to learn.

 Select the engineering design option space : What design
decision is the model expected to help you make? This helps
you focus on which physical elements are to be represented
and which others can be set aside. In this step, decide which
parameters will be design variables and which will be held
constant.
 Define the boundaries of the model : Lay out the boundaries
separating the modeled domain from the rest of the physical
situation.
 Find available information to support building the model .
 Determine what physical laws are pertinent to the problem.
 Assumptions : Clearly describe the assumptions made to
simplify the analysis.
 Construct the model and verify the model.
 Analysis: Determine how the equations of the model will be
solved to produce meaningful output.
 Validate the model: The analytical or numerical results obtained
from the model must be compared with available experimental
 Geometric Modeling

Geometric modelling refers to a set of

techniques concerned mainly with
developing efficient representations of
geometric aspects of a design. Therefore,
geometric modelling is a fundamental part
of all CAD tools.
Geometric modeling is the basic of many
applications such as:
• Mass property calculations.
• Mechanism analysis.
• Finite-element modelling.
• NC programming.

Requirements of geometric modelling include:

•Completeness of the part representation.
•The modelling method should be easy to use by designers.
•Rendering capabilities (which means how fast the entities
can be accessed and displayed by the computer).
 Geometric Modeling Approaches
The basic geometric modelling approaches available to
designers on CAD systems are:
1.Wire-frame modeling.
2.Surface modeling.
3.Solid modeling.

1- Wireframe modeling entities

• Analytic curves (lines, circles, ellipses, …….)
• Synthesis curves (parametric cubic curves,
Bezier curves, B-spline curves, …….)
2- Surface modeling entities
• Analytic surfaces (plane surfaces, ruled surfaces,
surface of revolution, tabulated surfaces)
• Synthesis surfaces (parametric cubic surfaces,
Bezier surfaces, B-spline surfaces, ….)

Solid modeling entities -3

• Construction Solid Geometry (CSG)
 Solid primitives (cubes, spheres, cylinders, ………)
 Boolean operations (Union, Subtraction, intersection)
• Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
 Geometric entities (points, lines, surfaces, …….)
 Topological entities (vertices, edges, faces, ……..)
• Sweep Representation
 Transitional sweep (Extrusion)
 Rotational sweep (Revolution)
2- Surface modeling entities
• Analytic surfaces (plane surfaces, ruled surfaces,
surface of revolution, tabulated surfaces)
• Synthesis surfaces (parametric cubic surfaces,
Bezier surfaces, B-spline surfaces, ….)

Solid modeling entities -3

• Construction Solid Geometry (CSG)
 Solid primitives (cubes, spheres, cylinders, ………)
 Boolean operations (Union, Subtraction, intersection)
• Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
 Geometric entities (points, lines, surfaces, …….)
 Topological entities (vertices, edges, faces, ……..)
• Sweep Representation
 Transitional sweep (Extrusion)
 Rotational sweep (Revolution)
Geometric Modeling
 Wire-frame Modeling
Wire-frame modelling uses points and curves
(i.e. lines, circles, arcs), and so forth to
define objects.
 The user uses edges and vertices of the part
to form a 3-D object

Wire-frame model part

 Surface Modeling
Surface modeling is more sophisticated than wireframe
modeling in that it defines not only the edges of a 3D object,
but also its surfaces.

In surface modeling, objects are defined by their bounding

faces.
Solid Modeling

Solid models give designers a complete

descriptions of constructs, shape, surface,
volume, and density.
 Finite Element Modelling
• FEM is a numerical method for solving a system of governing
equations over the domain of a continuous physical system,
which is discretized into simple geometric shapes called finite
element.

Discretization
Modeling a body by dividing it into an equivalent system of finite
elements interconnected at a finite number of points on each
element called nodes.
 Steps in FEA Process

• Finite element modelling is divided into three

phases:
1. Pre-processing,
2. Computation, and
3. Post processing.
Pre-processing phase : In the pre-processing phase the following
decisions and actions are taken:
• The geometry of the part is imported from the CAD model. Because
solid models contain great detail, they often must be simplified by
deleting small non structural features and taking advantage of
symmetry to reduce computation time.
• Make decisions concerning the division of the geometry into
elements, often called meshing. The issue is knowing which types of
elements to use, linear, quadratic, or cubic interpolation functions,
and building a mesh that will provide a solution with the needed
accuracy and efficiency. Most FEA software provide a means for
automatically meshing the geometry. The finite element mesh is
applied in one of two ways: structured (mapped) mesh or
unstructured (free) mesh.
• Determine how the structure is loaded and supported, or in a thermal
problem determine the initial conditions of temperature. Make sure
you understand the boundary conditions. It is important to
incorporate suffi cient restraints to displacement so that rigid body
motion of the structure is prevented.
Computation: The operations in this phase are performed by the
FEA software.
• The FEA program renumbers the nodes in the mesh to minimize
computational resources by minimizing the size of the global
stiffness matrix K .
• It generates a stiffness matrix k for each element and assembles
the elements together so that continuity is maintained to form
the global or structural matrix K . Based on the load vector the
software generates the external loads and applies displacement
boundary conditions.
• Then the computer solves the massive matrix equation for the
displacement vector or whatever is the dependent variable in
the problem.
Post processing : These operations are also performed by the FEA
software.
• In a stress analysis problem, post processing takes the
displacement vector and converts into strains, element by
element, and then, with the appropriate constitutive equation,
into a field of stress values.
• A finite element solution could easily contain thousands of field
values. Therefore, post processing operations are needed to
interpret the numbers efficiently. Mathematical operations may
have to be performed on the data by the FEA software before it is
displayed, such as determining the Von Mises effective stress.
 OPTIMIZATION -Definition

• The term Optimize is “to make perfect”.

• It is defined as follows: choosing the best element from some
set of available alternatives.
• An art, process, or methodology of making something (a design,
system, or decision) as perfect, as functional, as effective as
possible.
 Optimisation Parameters

Optimisation
parameters

Problem
type variable

Unconstraine
Constrained d
Dependent Independent
 Variables

• Independent variables : The independent variables are under the

control of the formulator. These might include the compression force

or the die cavity filling or the mixing time.

• Dependent variables : The dependent variables are the responses or

the characteristics that are developed due to the independent

variables. The more the variables that are present in the system the

more the complications that are involved in the optimization.

 Search method
• It is defined by appropriate equations.
• It do not require continuity or differentiability of function.
• It is applied to pharmaceutical system
• The response surface is searched by various methods to find the
combination of independent variables yielding an optimum.
• It takes five independent variables into account and is computer-
assisted.
 Steps involved in search method
1. Select a system
2. Select variables

a. Independent
b. Dependent
3. Perform experiments and test product.
4. Submit data for statistical and regression analysis.
5. Set specifications for feasibility program.
6. Select constraints for grid search.
7. Evaluate grid search printout.
8. Request and evaluate.
a. “Partial derivative” plots, single or composite.

b. Contour plots.
Optimization has two major steps were used:

• The feasibility search

• The grid search

1. The feasibility search : The feasibility program is used to locate a set

of response constraints that are just at the limit of possibility.
For example, the constraints in table were fed into the computer and
were relaxed one at a time until a solution was found.
• This program is designed so that it stops after the first possibility, it is
not a full search.
• The formulation obtained may be one of many possibilities satisfying
the constraints.

2. The grid search or exhaustive grid search : It is essentially a brute

force method in which the experimental range is divided into a grid
of specific size and methodically searched.
From an input of the desired criteria, the program prints out all
points (formulations) that satisfy the constraints.
Advantages of search method

• It takes five independent variables in to account.

• Persons unfamiliar with mathematics of optimization & with no

previous computer experience could carryout an optimization study.
• It do not require continuity and differentiability of function.

Disadvantages of search method

• One possible disadvantage of the procedure as it is set up is that not
all pharmaceutical responses will fit a second-order regression
model.