BIOMOLECULES

Introduction to Biomolecules

Chapter 1 2
Biomolecule, also called biological molecule, any of
numerous substances that are produced by cells and
living organisms. Biomolecules have a wide range of
sizes and structures and perform a vast array of
functions. The four major types of biomolecules are
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.

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Among biomolecules, nucleic acids, namely DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic acid), have the
unique function of storing an organism’s genetic code—the
sequence of nucleotides that determines the amino acid sequence of
proteins, which are of critical importance to life on Earth. There are
20 different amino acids that can occur within a protein; the order in
which they occur plays a fundamental role in
determining protein structure and function. Proteins themselves are
major structural elements of cells. They also serve as transporters,
moving nutrients and other molecules in and out of cells, and
as enzyme and catalysts for the vast majority of chemical
reactions that take place in living organisms. Proteins also
form antibodies and hormones, and they influence gene activity.

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Polynucleotide chain of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): Portion of polynucleotide chain of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA). The inset shows the corresponding pentose sugar and pyrimidine base in ribonucleic acid (RNA).

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Likewise, carbohydrates, which are made up primarily of molecules
containing atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are essential
energy sources and structural components of all life, and they are
among the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They are built from
four types of sugar units—
monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides,
and polysaccharides. Lipids, another key biomolecule of living
organisms, fulfill a variety of roles, including serving as a source
of stored energy and acting as chemical messengers. They also
form membranes, which separate cells from their environments and
compartmentalize the cell interior, giving rise to organelles, such as
the nucleus and the mitochondrion, in higher (more complex)
organisms.

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Molecular view of the cell membrane
Intrinsic proteins penetrate and bind tightly to the lipid bilayer, which is made up largely of
phospholipids and cholesterol and which typically is between 4 and 10 nanometers (nm; 1 nm =
10−9 metre) in thickness. Extrinsic proteins are loosely bound to the hydrophilic (polar) surfaces, which
face the watery medium both inside and outside the cell. Some intrinsic proteins present sugar side
chains on the cell's outer surface.

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All biomolecules share in common a fundamental relationship
between structure and function, which is influenced by factors such
as the environment in which a given biomolecule occurs. Lipids,
for example, are hydrophobic (“water-fearing”); in water, many
spontaneously arrange themselves in such a way that the
hydrophobic ends of the molecules are protected from the water,
while the hydrophilic ends are exposed to the water. This
arrangement gives rise to lipid bilayers, or two layers
of phospholipid molecules, which form the membranes of cells and
organelles. In another example, DNA, which is a very long
molecule—in humans, the combined length of all the DNA
molecules in a single cell stretched end to end would be about 1.8
metres (6 feet), whereas the cell nucleus is about 6 μm (6 10-
6
 metre) in diameter—has a highly flexible helical structure that
allows the molecule to become tightly coiled and looped. This
structural feature plays a key role in enabling DNA to fit in the cell
nucleus, where it carries out itsChapter
function
1 in coding genetic traits.8
Chapter 1 9
Carbohydrates provide quick energy to cells.
 
Nucleic acids are biological macromolecules that store genetic
information
 
Proteins provide cell structure
Proteins are important macromolecules that play a role in
maintaining cell structure. They are also important for cell signaling
and catalyzing reactions, and they are crucial in the endocrine and
immune systems as hormones and antibodies.
 
Lipids give quick and long term energy to cells

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Amino acid: a monomer of a protein

Carbohydrate: a biological macromolecule in which the ratio of

carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1; carbohydrates serve as energy
sources and structural support in cells

Cellulose: a polysaccharide that makes up the cell walls of plants and

provides structural support to the cell

Chitin: a type of carbohydrate that forms the outer skeleton of

arthropods, such as insects and crustaceans, and the cell walls of fungi

Denaturation: the loss of shape in a protein as a result of changes in

temperature, pH, or exposure to chemicals

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): a double-stranded polymer of

nucleotides that carries the hereditary information of the cell
Disaccharide: two sugar monomers that are linked together by a
peptide bond
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Enzyme: a catalyst in a biochemical reaction that is usually a complex or
conjugated protein

Fat: a lipid molecule composed of three fatty acids and a glycerol

(triglyceride) that typically exists in a solid form at room temperature

Glycogen: a storage carbohydrate in animals

Hormone: a chemical signaling molecule, usually a protein or steroid,

secreted by an endocrine gland or group of endocrine cells; acts to control or
regulate specific physiological processes

Lipids: a class of macromolecules that are nonpolar and insoluble in water

Macromolecule: a large molecule, often formed by polymerization of smaller

monomers

Monosaccharide: a single unit or monomer of carbohydrates

Nucleic acid: a biological macromolecule that carries the genetic information

of a cell and carries instructions for Chapter
the functioning
1 of the cell 12
Nucleotide: a monomer of nucleic acids; contains a pentose sugar, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

Oil: an unsaturated fat that is a liquid at room temperature

Phospholipid: a major constituent of the membranes of cells; composed of

two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to the glycerol backbone

Polypeptide: a long chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

Polysaccharide: a long chain of monosaccharides; may be branched or

unbranched

Protein: a biological macromolecule composed of one or more chains of

amino acids

Ribonucleic acid (RNA): a single-stranded polymer of nucleotides that is

involved in protein synthesis

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Saturated fatty acid: a long-chain hydrocarbon with single covalent
bonds in the carbon chain; the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the
carbon skeleton is maximized

Starch: a storage carbohydrate in plants

Steroid: a type of lipid composed of four fused hydrocarbon rings

Trans-fat: a form of unsaturated fat with the hydrogen atoms neighboring

the double bond across from each other rather than on the same side of
the double bond

Triglyceride: a fat molecule; consists of three fatty acids linked to a

glycerol molecule

Unsaturated fatty acid: a long-chain hydrocarbon that has one or more

than one double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain

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EXERCISES

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1) An example of a monosaccharide is ________.
A. fructose
B. glucose
C. galactose
D. all of the above

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2) Cellulose and starch are examples of ________.
A. monosaccharides
B. disaccharides
C. lipids
D. polysaccharides

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3) Phospholipids are important components of
__________.
A. the plasma membrane of cells
B. the ring structure of steroids
C. the waxy covering on leaves
D. the double bond in hydrocarbon chains

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4) The monomers that make up proteins are called
_________.
A. nucleotides
B. disaccharides
C. amino acids&nbs
D. chaperones

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5) Explain at least three functions that lipids serve in plants
and/or animals.

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6) Explain what happens if even one amino acid is substituted for
another in a polypeptide chain. Provide a specific example

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