EARTH

SCIENCE

JERRY D. TAAY
SHS Mentor
CORE SUBJECT DESCRIPTION
This learning area is designed to provide a general
background for the understanding of Earth Science
and Biology. It presents the history of the Earth
through geologic time. It discusses the Earth’s
structure, composition, and processes. Issues,
concerns, and problems pertaining to natural hazards
are also included. It also deals with the basic
principles and processes in the study of biology. It
covers life processes and interactions at the cellular,
organism, population, and ecosystem levels.
 FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE

Cosmology- the understanding of

the origin. evolution, structure and
fate of the universe.
 FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE
(THEORIES)
 BIG BANG THEORY
Prevailing cosmological model for the early
development of the universe.
Perceived as massive explosion around 13.7
billion years ago (age of the universe).
After the explosion, the surroundings were at a
high temperature of about 10 billion °F (5.5
billion °C)
Aggregates of fundamental particles such as
neutrons, electrons, and protons.
 FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE
(THEORIES)
 STEADY STATE THEORY
Sir James Jeans (1877-1946) in 1920
Fred Hoyle (1915 -2001) –revised
Hermann Bondi (1919-2005) & Thomas Gold
(1920-2004)- alternative to the BBT.
States that the universe is always expanding in
a constant average density.
Matter continuously created to form cosmic or
celestial bodies.
 FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE
(THEORIES)
 STEADY STATE THEORY
Toward 1960s- contradict the steadiness
Discovery of quasars and radio galaxies that are
at far distance only, disproved that the universe
is evolving not steady.
 FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE
(THEORIES)
 COSMIC INFLATION THEORY
Alan Guth (1947-present) & Andrei Linde (1948-
present) in the 1980s.
The universe is rapidly expanding bubble of pure
vacuum energy.
After expansion and cooling arising from this
inflation, the potential energy converted into
kinetic energy of matter and radiation.
 FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE
(THEORIES)
 COSMIC INFLATION THEORY
Observations:
Homogeneity of objects in space that use to be
in contact got farther away from one another.
Appearance of flatness of smoothness.

Formation of stars and star system .

 FORMATION OF STAR SYSTEM
(THEORIES)
 NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) & Pierre-Simon
Laplace (17-49-1877) in the 18th century.
Rotating gas cloud or nebula of extremely hot
gas.
Cooled gas , the nebula start to shrink, became
smaller, rotated faster, forming a dislike shape.
 FORMATION OF STAR SYSTEM
(THEORIES)
 NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
Angular momentum for nebula’s rotation and the
gravitational force from the mass of the nebula
formed the rings of gas outside.
Nebula continued to shrink, rings condensed into
various densities of planets and satellites.
The remaining part of the nebula, which had
most mass, formed the sun.
 FORMATION OF STAR SYSTEM
(THEORIES)
 THEPLANETESIMAL TIDAL THEORIES
Viktor S. Safronov (1917-1999) in 1941
Thomas Chamberlin(1843-1928) & Forest
Moulton (1872-1952) – 20th century.
James Jean (1877-1946) & Harold Jeffreys
(1891-1989)- in 1918
The gravity of the space bodies attracted space
objects until the effect of their gravity was
reduced due to the accretion which also increased
the size of the planetesimals.
 FORMATION OF STAR SYSTEM
(THEORIES)
 TIDAL THEORIES
Developed by James Jean and Sir Harold Jeffreys
in 1917.
A star passed close to the sun where the tidal
force or the secondary effect of gravitational pull
between the passing star and the sun drew large
amount of matter out of the sun and the passing
star.
 ADVANCEMENTS AND
DISCOVERIES ON THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
 In 2006 pluto was observed to belong to a
different region, the Kuiper belt (outer region
of the solar system, composed of frozen
volatiles, comets, and asteroids).
 Pluto was reclassified by IAU(International
Astronomical Union) as dwarf planet instead
of being the 9th planet of the solar system.
 ADVANCEMENTS AND
DISCOVERIES ON THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
 Mars may have had prehistoric living forms.
 NASA ( National Astronautics and Space
Administration)- obtains data through space
rovers.
Dry lakebed on sedimentary rocks (fossilized)
shape by microbes that are found on earth.
Presence of elements such as carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, and organic
compounds.
 ADVANCEMENTS AND
DISCOVERIES ON THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
 The expansion of the universe is accelerating.
 1998, two independent projects the Supernova
Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova
Search Team.
Observed that the expansion of the universe is
not slowing down or even constant, but is
inexplicably accelerating at an increasing rate.
Using advanced telescope, the distance of Milky
Way to the nearby galaxies was measured and
result proved it unexpectedly expanded in the last
few years.
 ADVANCEMENTS AND
DISCOVERIES ON THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
 The farthest intersellar travel is outside the
solar system.
Voyager 1 was launched in 1977- been in the
space traveling for nearly 35 years.
In 2012, NASA announced that Voyager 1 has
already left the solar system, and have reached
the farthest realms of space.
Voyager 1 mission has enabled humans to take
samples and images of various celestial bodies.
REFLECT UPON
Do you think there are other life-forms
exploring the universe aside from
humans? Has Earth been explored
already by other life-forms?
FAR?
1. Explain what could have come before the formation
of the universe, according to the cosmic inflation
theory?

2. How do the inner planets differ from the outer

planets in terms of composition, size and
formation?

3. How will the continuous expansion of the universe

affects the Earth?
FAR?
1. Compare and contrast the formation of the
universe and formation of the star system.

2. How did Earth form after the formation of

the sun?

3. How do the inner planets differ from the

outer planets in terms of composition, size,
and formation?
 EARTH SYSTEM
 Refers to earth’s interlacing physical, chemical and
biological changes.
 Gaia Hypothesis- states that organism interact with
their inorganic surrounding and establish a self-
regulating complex system that helps maintain the
conditions necessary for life on the planet.
 Presumed that it evolved into four subsystem
Geosphere
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
Biosphere
 GEOSPHERE
Solid portion of the earth that includes the
interior structure, rocks and minerals,
landforms, all the continents, ocean floors ,
down to the deep depth of the core, and the
processes that shape earth’s surface.
Lithosphere- covers only the crustal part and
upper mantle of earth.
Geologist-scientists that study this part of the
earth.
 EARTH SYSTEM
 Geosphere’s Internal Structure and Surface
Features
Has three main layers, the crust, mantle and core.
Different layers change in density, mineral
composition, and thickness with depth.
Two types of waves:
 p-waves- travels fast through both solid and
liquids.
 s-waves- travels slower through solid

alone.
CRUST
 Great variety of igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks.
 Composed of oxygen, silicon, aluminum,
iron, calcium, sodium, potassium &
magnesium.
 Oceanic crust
5 to 10km thick
Composed primarily of basalt, diabase, and
gabbro.
CRUST
 Continental crust
30 to 50km thick
Composed of less dense rocks, such as
granite.
Mohorovicic Discontinuity- the velocity of the
seismic waves behaved differently as they
traveled through the layer before the mantle.
CRUST
 Mohorovicic Discontinuity
Andrija Mohorovicic (1857-1936) croation
seismologist who discovered the moho
discontinuity in 1909.
Recognized as the transitional boundary that
divides the crust from the mantle.
POST IT!
MANTLE
 84% of the earth’s volume.
 Consist of olivines, pyroxenes and
garnet.
Higher portion of iron & magnesium.
Smaller portion of silicon &
aluminum.
MANTLE
 Anthenosphere
Lies on the upper part of the mantle and is
directly below the crust.
Occurrence of earthquakes and seismic
activities.
Extreme temperature and pressure causes
rocks to become ductile.
MANTLE
 Gutenburg Discontinuity
Beno Gutenburg (1889-1960) discovered
in 1913.
Transitional boundary between the lower
mantle and outer core.
Heat in the mantle dissipates, the molten
core gradually solidifies and shrink,
moving this boundary deeper in the core.
CORE
 Iron in the outer core is in liquid form, and
inner core is in solid form.
 Flowing iron and nickel in the outer core
resulted to the formation of the magnetic
field that further protects the earth.
CORE
 Lehmann Discontinuity
 Inge Lehmann (1888-1993) Danish
seismologist, discovered in 1929.
Shock waves travels some distance in to the
core and then bounced off some kind of
boundary.
Lehmann believed that there indeed lies a
unique layer that separates the liquid inner
core from the solid outer core.
EXTEND YOUR
KNOWLEDGE!
 HYDROSPHERE
 Encompasses all the water found on earth.
 Covers 70% on earth’s surface.
 Includes the permanently frozen parts
called cryosphere.
 HYDROSPHERE
 Importance of water
Water can be in liquid form, not just solid or
gas.
Water has a neutral pH.
Water is a good conductor of heat and
energy.
Water has specific heat.
Water is a universal solvent.
 HYDROSPHERE
 Distribution
of Water on Earth
Surface Water
Fresh water- lower salt content, best

for drinking water, accounts only 2%

of world’s water.
Marine Water- higher salt content,

accounts 98% of world’s water.

 HYDROSPHERE
 Distribution
of Water on Earth
Underground Water
Aquifer- acts as reservoir for groundwater
and may contain large amounts of minerals
such as magnesium, calcium etc..
REFLECT UPON
 ATMOSPHERE
 Mixture of gases that surround the planet
such as nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon
dioxide, and water vapor.
 Composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,
0.9% argon, remaining 1/10 % different
traces of gases.
 ATMOSPHERE
 Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere
Troposphere
Stratopshere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
IN A NUTSHELL
 BIOSPHERE
 Includes all life forms and even organic
matter that has not yet decomposed.
 Most life on earth exists within a zone less
than 20km wide.
 Interaction between the litosphere,
hydrosphere ant atmosphere create a
habitable environment.
 BIOSPHERE
 Theorigin of the Biospshere
Theory of primordial soup
Deep-sea vent theory
Panspermia
REFLECT UPON
 THE EVOLUTION
 The earth is a very complex system with
many other system operating within it. All
these system work because of the presence
of the fundamental materials that make up
earth. Driven by various geologic process,
the diversity of these materials has grown as
Earth continues to develop and evolve.
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
COLOR
 Usually the property used to identify minerals easily
 A result of the way minerals absorb light.

 May not be used in identifying translucent to

transparent minerals due to the presence of trace

amounts of minerals in them.
 Considered the least reliable means of identifying

minerals.
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
Example of Minerals and their Colors
Augite (brown, green, black, purple)
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Boitite (black, brown or green)
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Calcite ( Pearlescent and pale colors)
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Dolomite (Colorless, pale pink, brown or gray)
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Feldspar (Yellow, white, pink, green or gray)
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Hematite (Metallic gray or black)
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Hornblende (Green, yellow, brown or black)
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Limonite (Black, brown, or yellow)
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Sulfur (Pale gold )
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 STREAK Test
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
HARDNESS
 Refers to the measures of the mineral’s resistance to
scratching.
 To measure the relative hardness of minerals, the

Mohs scale is used.

 The harder the minerals, the greater is its resistance

to scratching.
 FREDERICK MOHS (1773-1839) German

Minerologist.
MOHS Relative
Hardness
MINERAL COMMON OBJECT

1
TALC POWDER

2
GYPSUM FINGERNAIL
MOHS Relative
Hardness
MINERAL COMMON OBJECT

3
CALCITE TOOTH

4
FLUORITE IRON NAIL
MOHS Relative
Hardness
MINERAL COMMON OBJECT

5
APATITE WINDOW GLASS

6
ORTHOCLASE STEEL FILE
MOHS Relative
Hardness
MINERAL COMMON OBJECT

7
QUARTZ PORCELAIN TILE

8
TOPAZ HARDENED STEEL
MOHS Relative MINERAL COMMON OBJECT
Hardness

9
CORUNDUM SAPPHIRE, RUBY

10
DIAMOND NONE
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 CLEAVAGE & FRACTURE
Are used to describe how minerals break

into pieces.
Minerals are crystalline structures and

breakage may take place in weak parts of

the structures.
The breakage along the crystalline structure

where a mineral is likely to break

smoothly- Cleavage.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
CLEAVAGE & FRACTURE
Are used to describe how minerals break into

pieces.
Minerals are crystalline structures and breakage

may take place in weak parts of the structures.

Cleavage- breakage along the crystalline

structure where a mineral is likely to break

smoothly.
Fracture- breakage is in a direction where there

is no cleavage.
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
CLEAVAGE FRACTURE
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE or
CRYSTAL LATTICE
Tells how a mineral’s crystals are arranged.

Crystal Solid- form a regular repeating

three-dimensional crystal lattice.

Amorphous Solid- forms aggregates that

have no particular order or arrangement.

EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE or
CRYSTAL LATTICE

Hand Lens
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 TRANSPARENCY or DIAPHANEITY
Indicates the extent of light that can pass

through the mineral.

Depends on the thickness of the mineral.
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 TRANSPARENCY or DIAPHANEITY
Transparent Topaz Translucent Corundum

Opaque Stibnite
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 MAGNETISM
Indicates the ability of a mineral to attract

or repel other minerals.

Lodestone
attracting
paperclips
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 TENACITY
The level of resistance or reaction of

minerals to stress such as crushing,

bending, breaking, or tearing.
It can tell if the mineral is brittle,

malleable, and elastic.

EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 LUSTER
Refers to the reaction of mineral to light.

Determines how brilliant or dull the

mineral is.

Logan Sapphire
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 ODOR
A distinct smell of a mineral that is usually

released from a chemical reaction when

subjected to water, heat, air, or friction.

Sulfur (lit match)

EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of
Minerals
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
A measure of the density

of a mineral.
Determines how heavy

the mineral is by its

weight to water.
video clip(physical properties of minerals)
EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 SILICATE CLASS
The largest and most abundant group

containing silicon and oxygen with some

aluminum, magnesium, iron, and calcium.
EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
SILICATE CLASS: examples
Feldspar Pyroxene Olivine

Quartz
EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 CARBONATE CLASS
Mostly found deposited in marine

environments.
Minerals belonging to this group are

formed from the shells of dead plankton

and other marine organism.
Found in areas where high rates of
evaporation takes place.
EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 CARBONATE CLASS: examples

Aragonite Calcite Malachite

EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 SULPHATE CLASS
Forms in areas with high evaporation rates

and where salty waters slowly evaporate.

Process: the formation of sulphates and

halides in water-sediments interface occurs.

EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 SULPHATE CLASS: examples

Anhydrite Blue barite Gypsum

EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 HALIDE CLASS
Contains natural salt, these minerals

usually forms in lakes, ponds, and other

landlocked seas such as the dead sea and
great salt lake.
Have low hardness, may be transparent,

have good cleavage, have low specific

gravity, and are poor conductors of heat and
electricity.
EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 HALIDE CLASS: examples

Halite Sylvite Fluorite

EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 OXIDE CLASS
Diverse class, these minerals are important

as they carry histories of changes in Earth’s

magnetic field.
Formed as precipitates close to Earth’s

surface or as oxidation products of minerals

during the process of weathering.
EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 OXIDE CLASS: examples

Chrysoberyl Hematite Spinel

EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 SULPHIDE CLASS
Has important metals such as copper, lead,

and silver, which are considered

economically significant.
These metals are found in electrical wires

industrial materials, and other things that

are needed in construction.
EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 SULPHIDE CLASS: examples

Copper Silver Lead

EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 PHOSPHATE CLASS
Considered an important biological mineral

found in teeth and bones of many animals.

Contains phosphorus.
EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 PHOSPHATE CLASS: examples

Arsenic Phosphate Vanadium

EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 NATIVE ELEMENT CLASS
Contains metals and intermetallic (gold,

silver, copper) elements, semimetals,

nonmetals (antimony, bismuth, graphite,
sulphur) or natural alloys, and constituents
of few rare meteorites.
EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 NATIVE ELEMENT CLASS: examples
Gold Silver Copper

Antimony Bismuth Graphite

video clip (rock and mineral identification)