LESSON 7: TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD

OBJECTIVES:

1. Youth

2. Youth and the Transition to Adulthood

 1. YOUTH
1.1 Pilcher (1995): ‘Youth is best understood as a stage of transition’ between
childhood and adulthood

• Western societies- Probable scenario for transition into adulthood:

-withdrawal from full-time education -family of origin
employment ‘family of destination’
Timing of transitions varies at both the individual and societal levels

• Rites of passage in tribes to mark arrival into adulthood:

-Nandi people of Kenya: boys undergo circumcision ceremony
-Bamba people of Zambia: Chisunga ceremony once girl has her first
period
Childhood is socially constructed, hence chronological age at which it ends also
varies
 1. YOUTH

1.2 Pilcher (1995):Youth and puberty

• Youth is partly associated with biological changes of puberty
• Puberty does not correspond to a particular chronological age
It varies according to environmental factors, between & within societies,
and also over time
• Adulthood does not necessarily start once a person hits puberty
Evidence: Adult rights & responsibilities are acquired at different
stages/ages in western societies
• No clear boundaries between youth and adulthood
Evidence: The age of 18 does not actually mark the transition into
adulthood
 1. YOUTH

1.3 Pilcher (1995) was inspired by Gillis’ (1974) work: Historical Development of
Youth
• Pre-industrial period:
-Youth stretched from age of 7-mid/late 20’s
-Youth involved as ‘gradual detachment from the family of origin’
o apprenticeship (semi-independence)
• Industrial era:
-Decline in apprenticeship
-Modern conception of youth emerged during the 19 th century
o introduction of state education + legislation banning child
labour
-Youth viewed as a time of turmoil & vulnerability
o protective legislations + Scouts developed
 1. YOUTH

1.4 Functionalist Views on Youth: Eisenstadt (1963)

• Assumption: Youth has both biological and cultural components

• Youth, despite the cultural differences, is always a (universal) transitory
stage
• Youth has vital functions for society:
-Development of the individual personality
-Transmission of core values
-Development of self-identity
• Youth is potentially a troubling phase as an individual is expected to
develop both conformity and also individuality & self-identity
Human agency v/s Structural constraints
 1. YOUTH

1.5 Functionalist Views on Youth: Eisenstadt (1963)-continued

• Variations (cultural) in nature of youth are the result of 3 factors:
1. level of complexity of the society
o industrial societies: age has less influence on social roles
2. values of a society
o If greater value is attached to divisions based on age, then
youth’s importance will vary accordingly
3. role of family
o In some contexts, full adult status is reached within the
family, while in others it is achieved through transition (peer
group) outside the family
 1. YOUTH
1.6 Functionalist Views on Youth: Eisenstadt (1963)- continued
• Modern industrial societies (MIS) tend to give more freedom to youths than other types of societies
• MIS characterised by:
-people operate according to universalistic values
-achieved status
-kinship losing influence on younger family members
o adult roles are learnt when passing through education system and then entering
employment (transition)
• Peer groups play a prominent role
-Risk that youth may develop deviant subcultures
o purpose of YMCA & Scouts is to try re-direct youth
• Youth are often uncertain of their future adult roles and lack clear role models
-Reason why they develop revolutionary movements
• Eisenstadt was positive about developing role of youth in MIS
-functional when youth develop their own sense of morality and individuality
o Condition: youth still in line with basic values of society
 1. YOUTH
1.7 Functionalist Views on Youth: Eisenstadt (1963)- continued

• Evaluation:
-Pilcher (1995): criticised functionalists for considering ‘youth cultures in
a uniform, undifferentiated way, probably with American, white urban,
middle-class males as their role model’

-No discussion about race, gender and material factors impacting on

freedom of youth

-Wrong to assume that youths would be successfully prepared for adult

roles-adolescence could be a traumatic time
 2. YOUTH AND THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD-THE BRITISH CASE

2.1 Youth Transition and Research

• MacDonald, Shildrick & Cieslik (2004): Reseach on youth covered 2 areas:
1. Youth subculture
2. Youth as transition to adulthood

• Roberts (1984): Patterns of transition from youth to adulthood are dependent on

socio-economic factors
-Abrupt transitions: high levels of employment in the 1950’s & 1960’s meant that
youth headed straight to paid work after schooling
-Gradual transitions: high levels of unemployment in late 1970’s meant that youths
having to enroll in training schemes
o Government justified it on ground that youth had to have appropriate
skills and attitudes
o Critics claimed that it was a masked strategy of exploitation
 2. YOUTH AND THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD-THE BRITISH CASE

2.2 Structural Change and Government Policies

• MacDonald et al (2004): Structural changes by government as prime

reason for change in nature of transition to work and adulthood:
-Structural unemployment resulting from process of deindustrialisation
-Changes in entitlements for youth benefits
-Policies to encourage post-compulsory education
 2. YOUTH AND THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD-THE BRITISH CASE

2.3 Postmodernism and Youth Transitions

• MacDonald et al (2004): Interprets changes in transition between youth
and adulthood as a matter of personal choice
-one chooses to be a student, work abroad, travel etc
-identities and choices are not shaped by class, gender or ethnic
elements
 2. YOUTH AND THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD-THE BRITISH CASE

2.4 Furlong & Cartmel (1997, 2006): Studied changing experiences of youth in
Britain in line with recent social changes
• They related to 3 theories:
1. align themselves with postmodernist claim that changes are indeed taking
place-but still in the context of modernity
2. In accordance to Giddens’ (1990,1991) concept of high modernity, they
also claim that modernity is changing, but not drastically
o Loss of firm foundation for individual identity
o Reflexivity: People’s constant reflecting on who they are in
quest for creating an identity
3. Draw from Beck’s (1992) theory of risk society that leads to
individualisation of social life
o Results from uncertainty caused by science & technology
o Choices no longer linked to social divisions
 2. YOUTH AND THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD-THE BRITISH CASE

2.5 Furlong & Cartmel (1997,2006): Transition to Adulthood as a Journey-An Analogy

• 1960’s and 1970’s: The journey of young people towards adulthood is liken to the journey
in trains for different destinations
-The train they board are determined by their class, gender & educational achievement
-Once the train departs, opportunities to switch destinations are limited

• Present day: This analogy no more applies. A better similarity can be drawn from car
journeys.
-It is more ‘individualistic’ and requires a lot of personal decisions as to which ‘route’
to take, and even contemplate changing ‘destinations’
-Isolated from others travelling the same roads
-Their choice may lead to accidents, traffic jams etc
Similar to Giddens and Beck
-The car one uses is determined by social factors, and it has significant role in
ultimate outcome
 2. YOUTH AND THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD-THE BRITISH CASE

2.6 Furlong & Cartmel (1997, 2006): Key Aspects of the Transition to
Adulthood

• Identified 3 crucial aspects of the transition between youth & adulthood:

A. Transition from school to work
B. Domestic transition
C. Housing transition
 2. YOUTH AND THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD-THE BRITISH CASE

2.7 Furlong & Cartmel (1997, 2006): Key Aspects of the Transition to Adulthood (cont.)
A. Transition from School to Work:
-Transitions between school and work has become more protracted and
varied
o Expansion of post-compulsory education
o Evolution of formal education system into a complex one, with many
levels
o More educational opportunities for girls

-Gender & class still important in determining destinations at end of transition

o Educational achievements still strongly influenced by social class
o Elite universities are predominantly attended by the MC
o Higher education is strongly gendered due to subject choice at school
 2. YOUTH AND THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD-THE BRITISH CASE

2.7 Furlong & Cartmel (1997, 2006): Key Aspects of the Transition to Adulthood (continued)

B & C. Domestic and Housing Transition:

-More varied & complex, and in some cases more protracted
o Youths are leaving their family of origin earlier, but mostly to become
students
o Some students establish intermediary households (living with friends)
o Influence of class & gender: Women marrying or move in with a partner
at younger age + WC youth have greater difficulties to afford a house
-Many young people remain in a state of semi-independence for several years
o Waiting time to qualify for adult benefits extended to age of 25
(delaying domestic & housing transitions)

Domestic & housing transitions are characterised by extension and

desequencing
 2. YOUTH AND THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD-THE BRITISH CASE

2.8 Furlong & Cartmel (1997, 2006): Conclusion

• Modernity and postmodernity are similar-no fragmentation

• Some elements of individualism have cropped up

• Greater choice in transition from youth to adulthood

• Choice is not equally distributed-MC ‘appropriate’ most of the choices

o Still, class is less important compared to the past, especially w.r.t
leisure & youth culture
 2. YOUTH AND THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD-THE BRITISH CASE

2.9 Green (2010): The ‘Problem’ of Contemporary Youth, Britain

• Youths have been viewed as either being:

-at risk of being harmed,
-or as a problem

• Latest government policies emphasise more on youth as being a problem

-authoritarian approach & greater social control
o Evidence: Increased imprisonment of many vulnerable
young people

Thus, youth is viewed as a problem

 2. YOUTH AND THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD-THE BRITISH CASE

2.10 Green (2010): The ‘Problem’ of Contemporary Youth, Britain (cont.)

• Problematic transitions to adulthood:
-Transition to employment is increasingly difficult
o Evidence: 1. decline in traditional apprenticeships
2.less jobs available due to competition from
developing countries
3. decline in availability of graduate jobs, despite
increase in number of graduates
4. MC students attend prestigious universities, thus
having advantage over WC students in job
market
Youth from all sections of society face an extended transition
to adult world & experience varies according to social group