CONSTRUCTION

TECHNOLOGY

CEM 571
 Chapter 5

BRICKS
Selection and function of Temporary Works
and permanent work in construction and
maintenance works including
 LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of lecture, student will be able to :

• Explain the definition, classifications, types

and process of bricks. (CO1; PO2)

• Identify the various types of brickworks

bonding, dampness protections and
anchorage. (CO1; PO2)
 History
The art of brick making can be traced back to before 6000
B.C. Peoples of Mesopotamia built palaces and temples
of stones and sun-dried brick by 4000 B.C. Roman then
used bricks for arches and roof vaults in their basilicas,
baths, palaces and aqueducts.

In mid century, the development brought by the Islamic

world by building magnificent palaces, markets and
mosques of brick, while the Europeans built fortresses and
cathedrals
 Fortress
History
In the 19th century, the effects of the industrial revolution
transformed brickmaking from a hand craft to a mechanized factory.
Machines were invented and developed to mould, press and
exclude clay bricks and improved kiln were designed to fire greater
quantities of bricks, quicker and with more consistency.
In 20th century, development in the masonry construction -
new techniques for steel reinforced masonry, high strength
mortars, high structural strength masonry units and
masonry units of many types that reduce the number of
labour required.
 Applications
In Malaysia, brick is widely used for buildings, civil engineering
works and landscapes features. our rich heritage masonry
buildings built during the pre-war era. One of the best examples
is the Sultan Abdul Samad Building.

Areas where bricks are commonly applied are as partition walls,

cladding and facings, perimeter and garden wall, hard
landscaping and paving and flooring. Bricks can also serve as
external and internal load bearing wall or load bearing piers and
column.
 
 
 
 
 
 

Figure 3: Low Rise – Loadbearing and Cladding

Figure 4: High Rise – Loadbearing and

Figure 5: Reinforced Structures and Low-Energy
Building

Figure 6: Exterior wall and interior wall and flooring

Retaining wall Freestanding wall Pathways

Patio Barbecue Steps and walkways

Figure 7: Bricks in Hard Landscaping

Figure 8: Load bearing arch bridge
Figure 9: Column and Pier spine wall

Figure 10: Window sill and Arch door

 

Bricks, stones, concrete blocks are collectively known as

masonry units.

Masonry is the building technique.

Mason is a person who stacks pieces of masonry unit a top one

another to make walls and also known as bricklayer.

Brickwork is the exterior of most houses and is not only a

structural component but also protects against weather and
decorates.
Brick as defined by MS 76: 1972: Part 2 and BS 3921: 1985:
Clay Bricks as a walling unit not exceeding 337.5 mm in length,
225 mm in width or 112.5 mm in height.

Bricks are known by their coordinating size; that is the actual size
plus a 10 mm joint allowance to three faces and tolerances. The
standard brick of nominal dimension of 225 x 112.5 x 75 mm has
actual work size of 215 x 102.5 x 65 mm. (see Figure 11)
work size

102.5mm coordinating
size
65mm
Figure 11: Brick dimension
215mm
  

Malaysian Standard, MS 76: 1972 classifies bricks under three

headings:-
 
1. VARIETIES
The standard divides varieties into three forms and they are
common, Facing and Engineering:-
 
 
 
 

Figure 12: Common, Facing

and Engineering bricks
 COMMON : bricks made without any particular attention to give
an attractive appearance and for general construction work such as
for backing walls, internal walls, walls with applied finishes and
foundation work. Figure 13 shows example of common brick use
 
as backing wall.

Figure 13: Common brick use as perimeter wall

 FACING :
bricks of consistent colour and texture,
reasonably free from surface defect or
 
blemishes, customize or selected to
have an attractive appearance intended
for the construction of fair-faced
walling without plastering or other
surface treatment. Figure 14 shows
facing brick used as an external wall.

Figure 14: Facing brick used as an external

wall
  ENGINEERING :
having a dense and strong semi-
vitreous body, conforming to define
limits for water absorption and
compressive strength,
i.e. strong dense bricks.(Figure 15)

Figure 15 : Engineering bricks

QUALITIES
The standard recognizes three qualities of bricks, and they are:-
 
INTERNAL QUALITY : suitable for internal use only.
 
ORDINARY QUALITY : less durable than the special quality,
but normally durable in the external face of the building.
 
SPECIAL QUALITY : durable even when used in situations of
extreme exposure where the structure may become saturated, e.g.
retaining walls, sewerage plants or paving. Such bricks have
clearly defined limits for soluble salts content.
 TYPES Solid Brick

The standard distinguishes types of brick according to their physical

form, and they are:-

SOLID :
•have cores or cells passing through or nearly through the brick
•constitutes no more than 25 percent of their gross cross-sectional area,
or frogs that is a depressions in the bed face of brick that do not exceed
20 percent of its gross cross-sectional area.
•A core or cell is defined as a hole less than 20mm wide or less than
500mm2 in area with a maximum three larger holes not exceeding 3250
mm2.
 Perforated brick
PERFORATED :
if the holes passing through the brick exceed 25
percent of its gross cross-sectional area and with a
maximum three larger holes not exceeding 3250
mm2. Small holes lesser than 25 percent.
 Hollow brick Celular brick

Types
 
  HOLLOW : means holes passing through the brick exceed 25
 
percent of its gross cross-sectional area and the holes are larger
than those defined as small holes. Large holes greater than 25
percent.

CELLULAR : means a brick which holes are closed at one end

and exceed 20 percent of its gross cross-sectional area.
 
SPECIAL SHAPES : bricks of special shape and size, other than the
normal rectangular prism.
These are accessory bricks used to form curves or non right-angled
corners, curved walls, arches or to form features or construction
details that cannot be built using standard units unless they are cut
and pieced together.
E.g. squints, circular and bullnose bricks. (Figure 20)

Squint

Circular

Bullnose

Figure 20: Special shapes brick Figure 21: Arch over an opening.
  CLAY BRICKS

The materials used for making clay brick range from soft and
plastic surface deposits to hard mudstone and shale.

Clay bricks are produced by mixing the finely ground clay with
water, moulding, extrusion or pressure into the desired shape,
drying it, and burning it.

The shape obtained should retain its original shape without

undue shrinkage, warping or cracking when the bricks are dried
and fired.
 Manufacture of Clay Bricks
The various methods of production of clay bricks are governed
by the nature of the clay or shale, and may be divided into:-

Semi-dry Process or The clay or shale is comparatively dry. The raw

Semi-plastic Process material is ground to a fine powder by heavy rollers,
passed through the screen, mixed to a uniform
consistency, pressed and re-pressed in moulds and
burnt.
Stiff-plastic Process Similar to the semi-dry or semi-plastic process, except
that the water content of the material is increased and
less powerful machinery is needed to mould the brick.

Plastic Process The clay or shale suitable for this process contains a
large proportion of moisture. This type of process is
used for making wire-cut and hand-made bricks. The
bricks must be carefully dried before being burnt in
the kiln.
The stages involved in manufacturing clay bricks :- preparation of
the raw materials, moulding, drying and burning. 

PREPARATION
•Clay or shale dug either by hand or mechanical excavators from
the quarry or pit need to be cleaned to remove any undesirable
material such as stone or coarse vegetable matter, etc.

•For making common bricks, the raw material obtained will be

quarried direct to the crushing machinery.

•However, for producing of more expensive bricks, requires the

selection of material from different strata and this is normally
made at the quarry-face.
•These materials are blended together by mechanical
mixer in conjunction with the grinding or crushing
machine.

•After being ground the material is passed through a

screening machine to ensure that only fine, well graded
material passed forward for moulding.

•Those coarse material retained on the screen is returned

for further grinding.
 MOULDING – The prepared clay or shale is machine mould
by either the wire-cut process or pressed process, or it may be
hand moulding
Machine mould :- Wire Cut Process

•The clay usually fairly soft and of fine

texture is extruded as a continuous plastic
band or column and propelled over oiled
rollers to the cutting table.
•This cutting table consists of a frame containing
several wires at a distance apart equal to
Figure 22: Wire cut machine
the thickness of the bricks plus the
shrinkage allowance.
•Bricks made by wire cut process contain about 15% to
25% moisture and therefore must be partly pre-dried in
chamber or tunnel dryers before placed it in the kiln for
firing. Wire cut bricks do not have frogs. (Figure 22)
Pressure Process

The prepared clay is automatically fed into the moulds which are
the size of a brick plus shrinkage allowance.

Moulding bricks by pressure can be done either by hand or by

steam or electric power.

In the steam or electric power, the rotary press or belt driven press
machine with a number of moulds are brought in turn under the
plunger where the prepared clay will be discharged and
consolidated it under great pressure. After consolidation, the bricks
are removed either by an upward movement of the base or by the
dropping of the sides.
Hand Mould

Good quality clays are normally a prerequisite for hand

moulding.
They are made up of softer consistency having a rich texture,
beautiful colouring and durability. The prepared plastic clay is
left to stand or sometimes resorted as ageing for a period varying
from one day to several weeks in cool chamber to ensure a
uniform distribution of the water throughout the mass and the
decomposition of any organic matter.

This process is to increase the plasticity and workability of the

paste and preventing the development of cracks, blisters and
other defects.
 Figure 23: Artificial drying –
DRYING brick stacked

Normally bricks made of stiff-plastic

process or having water content exceeding
25% have to be dried before being placed
in the kiln.

Drying can be done either by artificial

drying or by natural drying. In artificial
drying, the heating mediums can be of
steam, direct heat from fires or waste heat
from kilns and boilers. The dryers include
the hot floor, shed, chamber and tunnel
types.
In natural drying, normally a well ventilated shed is used where the
bricks are stacked on racks and dried by the circulation of un-
heated air.
BURNING

In this process, bricks are fired in the kiln. Firing of bricks

produces a number of complicated chemical and physical
changes in clay, therefore the degree of control of the inside
temperature of the kiln is very important.

Typically the temperature of firing is about 900oC to 1200 oC.

The colours of the clay bricks are generated by the reaction of
the raw materials to the firing.

Differences in temperature and atmospheric conditions during

firing give rise to variations of colour. Kilns may be classified
into intermittent, continuous and tunnel.
 Table 3: Types of kiln
Intermittent Kiln For firing special bricks or other requirements. It is a
permanent structure with either down drought, horizontal
draught or up-draught kiln according to the direction of the
fire. The most commonly used is of down drought. Consists of
rectangular chamber lined with fire brick having four walls and
an arched top which incorporates a heat-insulating ring
composed of porous bricks to reduce the amount of heat
transmitted through the structure and therefore effects a saving
in fuel. The heat from the fuel will passes upwards to the arch
and deflected it down through the openly stacked green brick.
The produced gases will escaped through perforations in the
floor to a horizontal flue connected to a tall chimney.
Continuous Kiln Suitable for large and regular outputs. It consists of a number of
chambers connected in such a way that the operations are
uninterrupted and the waste heat is utilized to dry and pre-heat
the green bricks. Each chambers in turn being loaded with
green brick, fired, burnt, cooled and emptied. The structure
consists of walls of ordinary brickwork, lined with firebricks
jointed with refractory cement. The top is generally arched and
the floor is usually constructed of hard bricks bedded on sand
or concrete. The kiln is divided into compartments or chambers
and the number of compartment varies.
 Kiln

Figure 24: Intermittent kiln and Continuous kiln

Tunnel Kiln In tunnel kiln, the stacked bricks will be ferried by cars or
trucks on a track by a powerful hydraulic ram, while the
fires stay still. The brick will be traversed on kiln car,
passes along a tunnel through preheating, firing and
cooling zone. The firing zone and part of the cooling zone
are lined with firebrick. The temperature and track speed
of the kiln car are controlled to provide the optimum
conditions in each zone, and may be varied to produce a
specific functional and / or appearance characteristics.
Properties of Clay Bricks
There are many kinds of clay bricks available and they vary
considerably in appearance and function properties depending on
the purposes for which they are intended. The British Standard, BS
3921: 1985 has specifies certain requirements for clay brick for
use in walling, and they are dimensions, compressive strength,
water absorption, soluble salt content, efflorescence and sampling.
Dimensional The individual size should not exceed the coordinating
Deviation size 225 x 112.5 x 75 mm, and the overall measurement
taken from 24 samples of bricks should not fall outside
the limit as given in the BS 3921: 1985, i.e. maximum of
5235 x 2505 x 1605mm and minimum of 5085 x 2415 x
1515mm.
Compressive Compressive strengths ranging from about 7 to more than
Strength 100 N/mm2. The strength varies depending on the clay
composition and the firing. It is subjected to creep at normal
temperature and the Young’s modulus lies between 5 and 30
N/mm2. The strength of a brick is taken from mean of 10 nos.
of bricks of random sampling. (See Table 1)

Water Absorption The water absorption of the bricks used in a wall affects the
mode of rain penetration. It is the percentage increase in
weight when it is saturated. The rate of absorption plays an
important role in the bonding of the brick to the mortar in
the joint. If the brick absorbs water from the mortar too
quickly a poor bond will result, causing leaks and other
damage.
 
The amount of water absorption depends on the clay
composition, duration and temperature of firing. The
percentage of water absorption is taken from the mean of 10
nos. of bricks of random sampling. (See Table1)
Soluble salt Soluble salts particularly calcium sulfate in brick are liable
content and to become discoloured by the formation of a whitish deposit
Efflorescence known as efflorescence or salting. These salts were brought
to the surface and deposited there by water that had seeped
into the brickwork, dissolved the salts, then migrated to the
surface and evaporated.

Commonly found in new brickwork and on faces of old

external walls which are subjected to excessive dampness.
Therefore in order to minimize the risk of efflorescence and
soluble salt attack is to design the brickwork so that it
remains dry, i.e. not saturated. (See Figure 25)
 
Most types of newly form efflorescence can be easily
removed with water and brush.

Sampling The required number of brick for testing can either be

from random or representative sampling, which ever is
possible. Standard required 10 nos. of bricks for each
testing to be taken from each consignment.
 Table 1: Classification of bricks by compressive strength and water
absorption

Class Compressive Strength Water Absorption

(N/mm2) (% by mass)

Engineering A ≥ 70 ≤ 4.5
Engineering A ≥ 50 ≤ 7.0

Damp-proof course 1 ≥ 5 ≤ 4.5

Damp-proof course 2 ≥ 5 ≤ 7.0

All others ≥ 5 No limits

Source: BS 3921 : 1985

 Table 2: Categories for soluble salt content and efflorescence of clay brick
Soluble salt content:-
Source : BS 3921 : 1985
  Percentage by mass Designation Remarks
(%)
Calcium ≤ 0.300 Low (L) Normal (N) – No limit on
soluble salt content
Magnesium ≤ 0.030 Low (L)

Potassium ≤ 0.030 Low (L)

Sodium ≤ 0.030 Low (L)

Sulphate ≤ 0.500 Low (L)

Efflorescence:-

Nil No perceptible deposit of salts

Slight Up to 10% of the area of the face covered with a deposit of salts, but
unaccompanied by powdering or flaking of the surface.
Moderate More than 10% but not more than 50% of the area of the face covered
with a deposit of salts, but unaccompanied by powdering or flaking of the
surface.
Heavy More than 50% of the area of the face covered with a deposit of salts
and/or powdering or flaking of the surface.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 25: Efflorescence in brickwork
CALCIUM SILICATE BRICKS - in BS 187: 1978
(Also known as sandlime, or sometime as flintlime bricks)

The raw materials are siliceous aggregates, high calcium lime

and water.

A very fine aggregate with the majority passing a 1.15mm BS

410 test sieve is generally used. The ratio of aggregate to lime
by weight is in the range 10 to 20. Their natural colour is off-
white and they are smooth and regular in shape. Coloured
pigments are sometimes added if various colours and textures
are required by mechanical texturing before autoclaving.

Calcium silicate bricks are made to the same standard size as

clay bricks and they are either solid or may have frogs, but not
perforated.
Manufacture of Calcium Silicate Bricks (CSB)
CSB also commonly known as autoclaved calcium silicate-
bonded bricks.

The moulded CSB are hardened in sealed and steam

pressurized autoclaves process. This highly mechanized or
automated process normally takes from seven to ten hours to
allow reaction between the sand and the lime, resulting in a
strong homogenous brick. The performance characteristic of
CSB can be adjusted to suit the requirements by varying the
autoclaving time and the steam pressure.
Figure 26: Autoclaving kiln
Properties of Calcium Silicate Bricks
BS 187: 1978 specifies certain requirements and they are
dimensions, compressive strength, drying shrinkage and sampling.
 
The standard gives 6 classes and the higher the numbered class the
stronger is the brick, i.e. loadbearing bricks, facing bricks and
common bricks. The appearance of the loadbearing bricks and facing
bricks must be free from visible cracks and noticeable balls of clay,
loam and lime. For facing brick, it should be of the colour and
texture agreed upon and reasonably free from damage.

Typically the range of mean comp. strengths in general use is 14 to

27.5 N/mm2, depending on the quality of bricks being produced.
Drying shrinkage for common bricks of strength class 2 should not
be more than 0.040 percent. In term of water absorption for calcium
silicate bricks, it varies between about 6 and 16 percent by weight.
 Table 3: Compressive strength classes, requirements and colours of calcium
silicate bricks
Designation Class Mean compressive Predicted lower limit of Colour
strength not less than compressive strength
(N/mm2) not less than (N/mm2)

Loadbearing brick 7 48.5 40.5 Green

  6 41.5 34.5 Blue
or 5 34.5 28.0 Yellow
Facing brick 4 27.5 21.5 Red
3 20.5 15.5 Black
Facing brick or        
common brick 2 14.0 10.0 -

Source : BS 187 : 1978

 
Calcium silicate bricks of the appropriate class can be used in all types of brickwork
including underbuilding (i.e. foundation walls and basement walls), external and
internal facework, loadbearing walls, piers and column, and non-loadbearing panel
walls and partitions.
 Source : BS 187 : 1978
Table 4: Minimum quality of calcium silicate bricks
Element of construction Minimum quality of bricks
class
Inner-leaf of cavity walls and Unplastered 2
internal walls
Plastered 2

Backing to external solid   2

walls
External walls including the
outer-leaf of cavity walls and
facing to solid construction
External free-standing wall
above damp proof course 2
near to ground level
below damp proof course but 2
more than 150mm above
finished ground level
Within 150mm of ground or 3
below ground
  3

Parapets Unrendered 3

Rendered 3

Sills and copings of bricks   4

Earth retaining walls   4

SAND CEMENT BRICKS (SCB) - BS 1180 : 1972
Material for SCB is Portland cement and sand. Common ratio between
sand and cement is of 6 parts of sand to 1 part of cement by volume,
with max. size of sand passing through a 4.8mm mesh of BS 410 test
sieve. deals with the minimum requirement for these brick.
 
Manufacture of Sand Cement Bricks
Moulding of SCB can be done either by hand or by machine. The
machine is operated either electric power or mechanical motor and
incorporated with the pressing machine.

After removal from the machine, the surface of the bricks are normally
scratched and left to be matured on the pallets under shade (stacked in
a separate rows one brick high with a space between each brick).
Normally for the first 24 hours after removal from the machine, the
bricks will be kept wet by watering through a fine spray. Removed
from the pallets after 2 days removal from the machine & allow to
mature for a period of 26 days.
 Properties of Sand Cement Bricks
BS 1180: 1978 has specifies certain requirements for sand cement
bricks for used in walling, and they are dimensions, compressive
strength and drying shrinkage and sampling.
Table 5: Physical requirements Source:
BS 1180 : 1978

Physical property Compressive strength category

7.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 30.0 40.0

Compressive strength (wet): 7.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 30.0 40.0

average of 10 bricks to be not
less than (N/mm2)
Coefficient of variation of 30 30 30 20 20 16
compressive strength not to
exceed (%)
Drying shrinkage not to exceed 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
(%)
CONCRETE BRICKS
Concrete bricks are made from a mixture of inert aggregate and
cement same as calcium silicate brick and are cured in either by
weathering or in an autoclave.

These concrete bricks are harder, more difficult to cut and less
pleasant to handle than clay or calcium silicate bricks and are
less commonly used.

The drying shrinkage varies from 0.019 to 0.080 % of the

length and is greater than that of calcium silicate bricks. BS
6073: Part 1: 1981 deals with the min. requirements for these
bricks and the classification of the types and their properties.
 Mortar work is serves to cushion the brick units, giving full
bearing against one another despite their surface irregularities.

The purpose of mortar is:-

-   1.      it bonds the bricks together;
-   2.     to seal between the bricks against penetration by
air and moisture;
-   3.      it adheres the brick units to one another to bond
them into monolithic structural unit;
-   4.     accommodates small movements within the wall.
-   5.     the appearance of the finished brick wall.
MORTAR MIXES BS 5628: Part 1: 1978.

Mortar is composed of an inert aggregate

(sand) and a binding material of lime or
cement or both.

The proportion of cement and lime in the

binder affects the properties of mortar, and
it can be carried out by volume or by
weight.
Most mortar mixes are based on a ratio of 1
binder to 3 aggregate (Figure 26). The
reason is because the air spaces between Figure 26: Mortar
particles of sand account for about one mixture
quarter of the total volume.
 Mortar is a mixture of sand, cementitious materials and
water used to bond bricks.

  Cement–lime is a mixture of cement, lime and sand.

 
 
 
 
 
Lime Mortar- slake lime mix with sand and water.

Masonry cement- mixture of OPC and inert pulverized

limestone or hydrated lime.

Slaking is the chemical reaction that produces hydrated

lime when limestone and water are mixed
CEMENT - Portland cement is the bonding agent in the mortar,
besides providing strength and durability.
The type of cement used will governs the setting
characteristics, workability and the strength development of
mortar. More cement produces a strong mortar and reduces the
risk of sulphation as it absorbs less water.
 
LIME – Imparts workability, water retention, elasticity and
bond strength. However, if the amount of lime is too much, it
delays the setting of the mortar and walls may be unstable and
liable to wind and other damages. The period of slaking,
composition and strength of mortar depend upon the class of
lime used.
SAND - Sand used must be cleaned and screened to
eliminate particles that are too coarse or too fine.
Changes in sand type and gradation affect the
workability of the mortar. Sands deficient in fines
generally produce harsh mortars, while sands with
excessive fines result in weak mortars.
The purpose of sand in mortar is to :-
Ø     act as a filler which enhances the strength
of mortar;
Ø    reduce shrinkage therefore prevent the
development of cracks;
Ø    assist in the hardening of pure limes by
allowing the penetration of air which provides
CO2 for the development of carbonization;
Ø    control dimensional stability by retaining its
shape and thickness;
Ø     reduce cost as sand is cheaper than lime or
cement.
WATER – Is a mixing agent which adds to workability and
without water cement hydration and subsequent setting and
hardening of the mortar would not be possible.

Mortar joint
Is a narrow line with a conventional nominal joint thickness of
10 mm.

It account for over 17% of the surface area of the brickwork.

e.g. in English bond, about 20% of the surface area is mortar,
while bond consisting of all headers the proportion is nearly
25%.

Brickwork is jointed by striking, raking or rubbing the mortar

while it is still ‘green’.
Mortar joints should be finished at the surface with a consistently
shape profile as this also affects the appearance of the work, i.e.
each profile casts a characteristic shadow in sunlight as can be
seen in Figure 27.

A recessed joint casts a dense, bold shadow and darkens the tone
of the brickwork by the darkness in the joint.

A flush joint has no shadow and does not modify the tone of the
wall by this effect.

The concave surface of the keyed joint creates a soft shadow to the
bed joints.

Pointing in brickwork is the finish given to the joints by raking out

to a depth of approximately 13mm to 20mm and then refilling the
joint and the face with a hard setting cement mortar.
Figure 27: The profile of bed joints view at close distance
 
 
 
 
 
Flush
  Joint Recessed Joint Weathered Joint Keyed Joint

20mm 20mm

Figure 28: Mortar

Joint Profile

Weathered Pointing Raked Out Joint

 Mortar and grout differ conceptually from concrete in this primary
respects: water content, stiffness of the mix, aggregate size and
permitted cementitious materials.

Grout is a mixture of cementitious material, aggregate and enough

water to cause the mixture to flow readily into cores or cavities in
the brickwork.

Concrete, mortar and grout are all permitted to have OPC and blended
cement as their cementitious materials.

However, mortar may also incorporate lime, which is not used in

concrete and may only be used sparingly in grout.
 Bricklaying is an art!

The brick in a length of wall must be properly bonded in order

to distribute vertical and horizontal loads over a larger area and
  so minimize the possibility of differential movement between
bricks, i.e. structural integrity to the wall.

Bonding is part of the bricklayer’s skill in producing a pleasing

appearance, besides ensuring stability of the brickwork.

It is a disposition of brick in a wall designed to ensure that the

cross joint in each course are not less than one-quarter of the
length of the brick from those in adjacent courses.

A bond is usually identified by the appearance of the external

face of the wall.
 METHOD OF BONDING
Various methods of bonding are used giving rise to different bond
patterns which have special name.
 
 
Header Bond - it has only headers in each course of a wall.
Normally used in the construction of footings and walls with
sharply curve. (See Figure 29)

Figure 29: Header Bond

 Stretcher Bond

It has only stretchers in each course of the wall, except at

stopped end of a wall at each alternate course, a half bat brick is
  placed. (See Figure 30)

Figure 30: Stretcher Bond

 English Bond
It has courses of headers alternate with courses of stretchers. In this
bonding, every alternate header in a course sits centrally over the
joint between two stretchers in the joint, except at certain stopped
end. In each heading course a queen closer is placed next to the
 
quoin header, and the rest will be headers as shown in Figure 31.
Comparatively lack of straight joints therefore it gave this bond as
the strongest of all bonds. Use particularly in civil engineering work.

Figure 31: English Bond

Flemish Bond – it comprises of alternate headers and
stretchers in each course as shown in Figure 32. There are two
kinds of Flemish bond :-
Double Flemish bond - both external and internal faces of the
wall have the characteristic appearance of Flemish;

Single Flemish bond - it has a facing of Flemish bond with a

backing of English bond. It has a large number of short
continuous vertical joints which occur in the longitudinal
joints.

Figure 32: Flemish Bond

 Garden wall bond – Suitable for garden and division, and be
of two forms, i.e. English garden wall bond and Flemish garden
wall bond.
English garden wall bond – it has three or five courses of
stretchers to one course of headers. A queen closer is
introduced next to quoin header in the heading course. A header
 
is placed at the quoin of each middle (or alternate) course of
stretchers to give a necessary lap and face appearance of the
stretching bond can can be seen in Figure 33.

Figure 33: English Garden Wall Bond

 Flemish garden wall bond

It has one header to every three or five stretchers in each course. A

three-quarter bat is placed next to quoin in every alternate course,
  and a header is laid over the middle of each central stretcher. (See
Figure 34)

Figure 34: Flemish Garden Wall Bond

Dutch bond

Consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers, but

each stretching course begins at the quoin with a three-quarter
bat and every alternate stretching course have a header placed
next to the quoin three-quarter bat. Figure 35 shows the Dutch
bond.

Figure 35: Dutch Bond

TERMS USED IN BRICKWORK
Arris an angle or edge of a brick.

Bed the lower 215mm by 102.5mm surface of a brick when placed in

position, or the underside of the brick.
Header the end or 102.5mm by 65mm surface of a brick and lay with its
length perpendicular to the face of the wall.
Stretcher the side or 215mm by 65mm surface of a brick and lay with its
greatest dimension horizontal and its face parallel to the wall
face.
Face a surface of a brick such as a header face and stretcher face; is
also applied to an exposed surface of a wall.
Frog a shallow sinking or indent formed on rather one or both of the
215mm by 102.5mm faces of a brick.
Bed Joints is a horizontal mortar joint parallel to the beds of the brick.

Course a complete horizontal layer of bricks plus its mortar bedding

joint.
Continuous it comes immediately over each other in two or more consecutive
Vertical Joints or courses.
Straight Joints
Quoin is a connection form by two walls (a corner or external angle)
which meet at 90o.
Stopped or Closed is a square termination to a wall.
End
Perpends Is an imaginary vertical lines which include vertical joints and
should be perpendicular or plumb.
Junction in brickwork means a connection between two walls, i.e. T-junctions
and cross- junctions or intersections.
Lap the horizontal distance which one brick projects beyond a vertical
joint in the course immediately above or below it.
Racking back The stepped arrangement formed during construction of a wall
when one portion is built to a greater height than that adjoining.

Toothing each alternate course at the end of a wall projects in order to

receive or to provide adequate bond if the wall is continued at a
later date.
Bat a portion of an ordinary brick with the cut made across the width of
the brick, usually greater than one quarter. There are three types of
bat, i.e. half bat, three-quarter bat and bevelled bats.

Closer a portion of an ordinary brick with the cut made longitudinally.

Common types of closer are queen closer, bevelled closer and
mitred closer.
Queen closer obtained by cutting an ordinary brick into two half bats and usually
placed next to the first brick in a header course.
 Frog Arrises

 
 
 
 
  Header Face
 
  Stretcher Face
 
Bed Face
 
 
Quoin
Racking Back
 
  Mortar Joints
 
 
 
Quoin Headers Stretching
course
Heading course

Queen Closers Bed Joints

Toothing
Vertical Joints

Figure 27: Terms in Brick and

Brickwork
Pilaster also known as attached pier is a thickened wall
section or a vertical support built contiguous with and
forming a part of the brick wall. Used for stiffening brick
walls and to provide all or part of their lateral support. It
functions primarily as flexural member.(See figure 36)

Piers also known as pillars or column in brickwork used to support

concentrated loads or to strengthen walls.

Pilaster

Figure 36: Pilaster

 There are many ways that dampness can penetrate into a
building through the brick wall, and they are :-
Ø      By the rain beating against the external walls and
absorbed the water to show dampness on the internal
walls.
Ø      Moisture rising up the walls at or near to the base by
capillary action and moves up the wall and enter the
building above the ground floor level.
Ø      Moisture penetrates down into the head of the wall and
moving down into the building below the roof level.
 
The above can be overcome by placing a suitable damp-proof
course in the thickness of the wall.
 DAMP PROOF COURSE (D.P.C)

It is An impervious material place horizontally or

vertically to provide a barrier to the passage of
moisture from the external source into the wall of
the building or from part of the structure to
another.
Damp-proof course (dpc) is normally placed at a
distance of 150mm to 300mm above the ground
level 
The materials to be used as d.p.c should satisfy the
criteria as stipulated in BS 743, and they are :-
1. should be completely impervious,
2. should be durable and long lasting,
3. should be of thin membrane or sheets so as
to prevent disfiguration of the wall,
4. should be strong to support load imposed on
it without exuding out from the wall,
5. should be of flexible material and able to
deflect accordingly with any settlement without
fracturing.
 DPC

 
 
G.L
 
 
 
 
 
 

Arrow indicate
weep holes

Figure 37: Damp-proof course in brick wall and sills

around timber window.
 Table 7: Materials used for damp-proof course
Lead It is very costly but effective damp-proof course. It is very
durable and flexible material and available in rolls of thin
sheets with varying widths, therefore large irregular shapes
with few joints can be produced. However, lead liable to exude
under heavy loadings and should be scratched as it does not
adhere readily to mortar.
Copper It is also a very excellent damp-proof course and should have a
minimum thickness of 0.25mm. Available in rolls of thin sheets,
lapped and jointed as described for lead.

Mastic Asphalt An excellent damp-proof course and it is applied in situ in two

layers with a total thickness of 25mm and it is jointless. This
damp-proof course is impervious, indestructible and does not
fracture if on account of unequal settlement or cracks in the
brickwork.
Bitumen It comes in the form of felt or rolls usually to brick widths and
can be laid quickly with min. number of joints. There are many
varieties available such as hessian, fibre, asbestos & lead which
is impregnated with and covered by a layer of hot natural
bitumen, and sanded on the surface to prevent the layers from
adhering to each other. Should be lapped 75mm where joints
occur and lapped full width at all crossings and angles.
Polythene It is of low density black polythene sheet of single
thickness not less than 0.5mm thick. It is easily laid,
however care should be taken when lay as it is easily torn
and punctured.
Slate It is very efficient damp-proof course. It is laid in two
courses set breaking the joint embedded in cement mortar
with a minimum length of 230mm long and thickness not
less than 4mm thick. It has limited flexibility and liable to
be broken if unequal settlement occurs, but are
impervious and very durable.

Bricks Effective damp-proof course and are built in two courses

in cement mortar. It should comply with the requirement
of BS 3921.
Metal anchors are positioned in the brick walls to provide
structural integrity of the walls.

It will attach a wall to its supports, either to another wall, floor,

beam, column or other structural support.

Ties are one of the examples of a metal anchor which used to

hold a brick walls together, whilst fasteners attach other
building elements to walls.
Ties must be strong for it purpose, be non-corrodible (copper
or galvanized wrought iron) and normally shape so that water
from the outer leaf of the wall will not pass along them to the
inner leaf.
 Double Triangle Polypropylene
Tie

b. Adjustable brick
Butterfly ties
Twisted

a. Twisted cavity ties

Z-tie for use

Rectangular tie
with solid
with crimp or
bricks only Rectangular tie
drip for cavity
wall c. Fixed unit
ties
Figure : Ties
Brickwork is reinforced by introducing steel or wrought iron in the
form of flat or rod bars, woven wire or expanded metal. This
reinforcement is placed in joints or in grooves or perforations in
bricks and capable of resisting compression, tensile and shear
stresses.

In order to improves the longitudinal bond of the wall, a

reinforcing metal meshed strips, best known as ‘Exmet’ is placed
at the bed of every third course of the wall height. It is made from
thin rolled steel plates which are cut and stretched by a machined to
a diamond meshwork form.

It is normally used in walls and partitions to resist both horizontal

and vertical pressure.

The strips should lap at intersection and at joint with a lapped of 75

mm.
Brickwork can be reinforced using rod wire reinforcement. It
is used vertically to strengthen walls of reduced thickness and
to resist lateral stresses.

‘Brickforce’ is a welded reinforcement used to improve

resistance of the horizontal pressures occurring from either
side.

‘Wallforce’ is use to strengthen cavity wall. (See Figure 39)

‘Bricktor’ which is a stainless steel or galvanized wire mesh is

used in brick walls to bond and strengthen corners and
intersections of the walls. (See Figure 39)
 
 
  b. ‘Brickforce’
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  a. ‘Wallforce’
 
 
 
 

c. ‘Bricktor’

e. Rod reinforcement

Figure 39: Reinforced brick walls d.‘Exmet’