Fluid Mechanics

Basic physical laws in fluid mechanics

1. conservation of mass
1. (continuity) dm
0
dt
2. conservation of linear momentum
1. (Newton’s 2nd law) d  mV 
0
dt
3. conservation of angular momentum
d H
 0 and H    r  V  m
dt

4. conservation of energy
1. (1st law of thermodynamics)
d  Q d  W  d  E 
 
dt dt dt
 Problem Solving Methodologies
1. Differential (small-scale) analysis - CFD
• Differential approach aims to calculate flow at every point in a given
flow field

2. Integral (large-scale) analysis

• To calculate the overall feature of the problems

3. Experimental (dimensional) analysis

• Analysis of the relationships between different physical quantities by
identifying their fundamental dimensions  and units of measure and
tracking these dimensions as calculations or comparisons are performed
 Reynolds Transport Theorem

Conversion of system analysis into control volume

analysis is called Reynold Transport Theorem
1. We need to convert the mathematics to apply to a
specific region rather than individual masses
2. A moving system flows through the fixed control
volume
3. Moving system transports extensive properties across
the control volume surfaces
4. Need a book keeping method to keep track of the
properties that are being transported into and out of the
control volume
Reynolds Transport Theorem, contd…
control mass  control volume
 Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT)
one-dimensional fixed control volume
let B be any property of the fluid

dB

dm
Then  can be the corresponding intensive property
of the fluid
Total property B of
the fluid in the CV 
BCV      dv
CV
RTT 1-D fixed control volume

d BCV  t  dt   BCV  t 
 BCV  
dt dt
1
  B2  t  dt     dV  out    dV  in 
dt
1
d
Rewrite  
 B2  t  

dt
 BCV   dt

1
 B2  t  dt   B2  t      AV  out    AV  in
dt
 RTT 1-D fixed control volume
d 1
dt
 BCV    B2  t  dt   B2  t   Rate of change of
dt B for the CV
Flux of B out of
   AV  out
the control volume

   AV  in
Flux of B into
the control volume
d   d
   d V  
dt  CV
 
BSyst   V  out   V  in
 dt
d d  
Re-arranging
dt
 
BSyst     dV    V  out   V  in
dt  CV 
 RTT arbitrary fixed control volume
Surface area vector

1-D fluid velocity vector

2-D velocity vector
e ct or
components
ve lo c it y v
fluid
2-D    V  n  dA

BCV   dv
CV
CS

d d  
dt
 
BSyst     dV    VdAout   VdAin
dt  CV  CS CS

V . n is –ve means inflow and +ve means outflow

RTT arbitrary fixed control volume, contd.
For steady state process NET FLUX = 0
For 1-D inlets or outlets

Net Flux     V  n  dA    i iVi Ai      i iVi Ai   0

CS out in

For a control
volume having
two inlets and
three outlets

Net flux  0 
  2  2V2 A2     3 3V3 A3     5 5V5 A5    1 1V1 A1     4 4V4 A4 
 Conservation of Mass
“ mass cannot be destroyed or created ”
 dm 
 dt   0
  Syst

in the Reynolds transport theorem

dB dm
Let Bm then    1
dm dm
 dm  d  
 dt   dt    d V      V  n  dA
  Syst  CV  CS
 Conservation of mass, contd
for a fixed (stationary) control volume


CV t dV  CS   V  n  dA  0
for multiple one-dimensional inlets and outlets:
 nin nout

 d V     i AV
i i  in     i AV
i i  out
CV
t i i

change of mass flow _ mass flow

= rate into the CV rate out of the CV
mass in CV
 Conservation of mass, contd
for steady flow through a 1-D fixed control volume

0
 nin nout

CV t dV  i   i AV
i i  in     i AV
i
i i  out

nin nout

   AV 
i
i i i in
    i AV
i
i i  out
nin nout

  m 
i
i in
  m
 i  out
i

mass flow mass flow

=
rate into the CV rate out of the CV
example 3.3
 Conservation of mass, contd
For 1-D steady flow through a fixed control volume,
fluid is incompressible fluid i.e. ρ = constant

0 nin
 nout

CV t dV  i   i AV 
i i  in     i AV
i
i i  out 
nin nout

  AV 
i
i i in
   AV
i
i i  out

nin nout

 Q 
i
i in
  Q 
i
i out

volume flow volume flow

rate into the CV =
rate out of the CV
Conservation of mass, contd
Mass and volume flow rate for general
inlet/outlet cross sections

 CS 
m    V  n  dA
CS

QCS    V  n  dA
CS
 Conservation of mass, contd
Averaging general shape inlet/outlet cross sections

QCS 1
Vav     V  n  dA Volume Average
A A CS Velocity

1
 av    dA
A CS

m
 CS 1
 V  av      V  n  dA
A A CS
Does the average product have the same value
from the product of averages?
Example

Write the conservation-of-mass relation for

steady flow through a stream tube (flow
everywhere parallel to the walls) with a single
one-dimensional exit 1 and inlet 2.

 dm  d  
 dt   dt    d V      V  n  dA
  Syst  CV  CS
 Example
For steady viscous flow through a circular tube,
the axial velocity profile is given approximately
as shown below so that u varies from zero at the
wall (r = R), or no slip, up to a maximum u = U0
at the centerline r = 0. For highly viscous
(laminar) flow m ≈1/2 , while for less viscous
(turbulent) flow m ≈ 1/7 . Compute the average
velocity if the density is constant.
 At r=0 , u= U0 Density is constant
At r=R , u=0
At r=-R , u=0 V, as flow is along
Flow is steady the axis of tube

m
 CS 1 1
 V  av      V  n  dA Vav   VdA
A A CS A CS

m
1  r 2
Vav 
 R2 CS U 0  1  R  2 rdr Vav  U 0
 1 m  2  m
 Example
The tank in Figure below is being filled with water by two
one-dimensional inlets. Air is trapped at the top of the tank.
The water height is h. (a) Find an expression for the change
in water height dh/dt. (b) Compute dh/dt if D1 =1 1 in, D2= 3
in, V1= 3 ft/s, V2 =2 ft/s, and At = 2 ft2, assuming water at 20°C.
 Conservation of Momentum
Newton’s 2nd law

“ external forces acting on a control mass

will accelerate it (change its momentum) ”

d
 F  dt  mV  Syst
Conservation of Momentum - Newton’s 2nd law

in the Reynolds transport theorem:

let B  mV
dB d
then     mV   V
dm dm

d d  
 F  dt  mV  Syst  dt   V dV    V  Vr  n  dA
 CV  CS
Conservation of momentum important points

1. V is the fluid velocity relative to an inertial (non-

acclerating) coordinate system
2. Vr = V - Vs is the relative velocity of the fluid
crossing the control surface of the control volume
moving at a uniform velocity Vs
3.  F is a vector sum of all the forces (surface and
volumetric) acting on the control volume
4. The momentum conservation equation is a vector
relation and has three components:
Conservation of Linear Momentum
d 
 Fx  dt   u dV    u  Vr  n  dA
 CV  CS

d 
 Fy  dt   v  dV    v   Vr  n  dA
 CV  CS

d 
 Fz  dt   w dV    w  Vr  n  dA
 CV  CS
Momentum Conservation for a fixed CV

Vs = 0  Momentum Flux
 A dot product
so
 Negative for inlet
Vr = V
 Positive for outlet

d 
 F  dt   V dV    V  V  n  dA
 CV  CS
 Conservation of Linear Momentum

for multiple one-dimensional inlets and outlets:

F a net force
acting on a CV
nin
  Vi   i AV
i i  in plus a net
i (in - out)CV flow rate
nout
of momentum
  Vi   i AV
i i  out
i
d
 
dt CV
V d V results in a change of
momentum in the CV
example 3.8 and 3.10
 Momentum Flux Correction Factor
For 1-D momentum flux term we write

d  1D, V &  are

 Fx  dt   u dV    u  Vr  n  dA uniform
 CV  CS over area

  
     2
V V n dA mV
 AV
In duct flow the velocity distribution is not uniform,
need to rewrite above equation as

  u dA   mV
If flow is non
2
 av    AVa v 2
can use the c
to get averag
2
1  u 
where     dA
A  Vav 
Momentum Flux Correction Factor, contd.
 r2  4
For laminar flow u  Uo  1  2  
 R  3

m
 r 1 1
For turbulent flow u  Uo  1   m
 R 9 5
2
 1 m  2  m
2


2  1  2m   2  2m 

m 1/9 1/8 1/7 1/6 1/5

β 1.013 1.016 1.020 1.027 1.037
Example
A fixed control volume of a stream tube in steady flow has
a uniform inlet flow (ρ1, A1, V1) and a uniform exit flow (ρ2,
A2, V2), as shown in Fig. below. Find an expression for the
net force on the control volume.
 0 due to
steady flow

d 
 F  dt   V dV    V  V  n  dA
 CV  CS
Uniform Flow

 F  V   A V   V   AV 
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1

 m  V2  V1 
Problem
 Conservation of energy - 1st law of
thermodynamics

“If heat or work are transferred to a control mass

this will result in change of energy stored in it”

d
Q  W   E  Syst
 
dt
 Conservation of Energy
In the Reynolds transport theorem:
dB d
let B  E  me then     me   e
dm dm
e = energy per unit mass (=0)
  e = einternal (u) + ekinetic() + epotential(gz) + eother

dQ dW d d  
   E  syst    e  d V    e   V  n  dA
dt dt dt dt  CV  CS
Q is positive if heat is added to the system
Q is negative if heat is lost from to the system
W is positive if work is done by the system
W is negative if work is done on the system
 WORK DECOMPOSITION
W  W shaft  W pressure  W viscous

W  W s  W p  W 

W p   p  V  n  dA W      τ  V  dA  0
CS CS

W  W s   p  V  n  dA    τ  V  dA
CS CS
 Conservation of energy
Q  W s 
d   p
   e  dV     e     V  n  dA
dt  CV  CS  

2 2
 V p  V p
e  u  gz e  u  gz 
2  2 

 p V  2
V 2

u   gz  h   gz
  2 2
 Conservation of energy

Q  W s 

d    V 2
 
   u  gz   d V  
dt  CV  2  

  V2 
CS  h  2  gz    V  n  dA
 Conservation of energy
for multiple one-dimensional inlets and outlets:

Q  W s heat and work

transfer to the CV
d    V2   results in a
   u  gz   d V  change of energy
dt  CV  2   stored in the CV
nout
  Vi 2

  m out  h   gzi  plus a net
i  2 out (in - out)CV flow
rate of energy
nin
  Vi 2

  m in  h   gzi 
i  2 in
 Steady Flow Energy Equation
for steady state flow with one inlet and one outlet
  V2 2    V12 
Q  W shaft  Wvis  m
  2  h2   gz 2   m 1  h1   gz1 
 2   2 
  and dividing above equation by
 V12   V2 2 
h1   gz1   h2   gz2   q  w shaft  wvis
2  2 
 V2
where h   gz  H = Stagnation Enthalpy
2
p  V2  V2
NOTE e   u   gz  pv  h   gz
 2 2
 Steady Flow Energy Equation, contd

Steady-flow energy equation can also be written as

 2 
p1 u1 V1 p2 u2 V2 2
   z1     z2  hq  hshaft  hvis
 g 2g  g 2g

Pressure head
static head
velocity head
1. All the terms have the dimensions of [L]
2. All these terms are called as head
 Steady Flow Energy Equation, contd
A very common application of SFEE, for low-speed flow, no
shaft work and negligible viscous work, such as liquid flow in
pipes  
 p1 V12   p2 V2 2  u2  u1  q
   z1      z2  
 2g    2g  g

Total head Total head Total head lost

available at available at (frictional head loss) =
inlet = ho,in outlet = ho,out hf

ho ,in  ho ,out  h f
 Energy Flux Correction Factor
 For 1-D Energy flux term we write

1 2 1 2
 2 
 V    V  n  dA    Vav  m

s 2 
r
 In duct flow the velocity distribution is not
uniform, need to rewrite above equation as
3
1  u 
 where      dA
A  Vav 
Energy Flux Correction Factor contd..

 r2 
For laminar flow u  U o 1  2   2
 R 
m
 r 1 1
u  U o 1   m
 R 9 5
For turbulent flow 3
 1 m  2  m
3


4  1  3m   2  3m 

m 1/9 1/8 1/7 1/6 1/5

 1.037 1.046 1.058 1.077 1.106
 The Bernoulli equation
 observe flow along a streamline
 assumes frictionless flow
 assume no exchange of heat or shaft work
 assume steady state
 assume no change in internal energy (isothermal flow)
 Incompressible Flow
nin
 V 2
 nout
 V 2

Q  W s   m i n  h 
 i
 gzi    m iout  h  i
 gzi 
i  2 in i  2 out
d   V2  
   u   gz   dV 
dt  CV  2  
 V2   V2 
h  gz    h   gz 
 2 in  2 out
 The Bernoulli Equation

 p V 2
  p V 
2

u    gz    u    gz 
  2 in   2 out

p V 2
 p V 2

   gz      gz   const.
 2 in   2 out

example 3.21 3.23 and 3.24

Energy & Hydraulic Grade Lines Concept
FREELY FALLING FLUIDS
 THE
VENTURI
TUBE

A constriction in a pipe will cause the velocity to rise and

the pressure to fall at section 2 in the throat. The pressure
difference is a measure of the flow rate through the pipe.
The smoothly necked-down system shown in above is
called a venturi tube. Find an expression for the mass flux
in the tube as a function of the pressure change.
 THE CASE OF TURBINE /SHAFT WORK

Frictional losses =
hf 20 m.
Assume turbulent flow,
a = 1.06
Find the Power in MW?
 THE CASE OF PUMP /SHAFT WORK

V22
Losses between 1 and 2 = hf = K (K=7.5)
2g
Flow rate from pump = 3 ft /s
3

a = 1.07
pump  = 80%
r = 62.4 lbm/ft3 = 62.4/32.2 = 1.94 slugs/ft3
Find the hp required for the pump?
Pitot Tube
 THE USE OF VENTURI EFFECT

Derive an expression for the velocity V1 which is just

sufficient to bring reservoir fluid into the throat, assuming
no losses
 THE USE OF PITOT TUBE CONCEPT

Manometer fluid is mercury. Estimate the volume flow in

the tube if the flowing fluid is
(a) gasoline
(b) nitrogen, at 20°C and 1 atm
FOR GASOLINE, V1 =10.1 ft/s and Q = 0.495 ft3/s
FOR CO2 , V1 =250 ft/s and Q = 12.3 ft3/s