CHAPTER 2:

Atomic structure and interatomic

bonding
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What promotes bonding?

• What types of bonds are there?

• What properties are dependent on bonding?

Chapter 2 - 1
 Atomic Structure
• atom – electrons – 9.11 x 10-31 kg 
protons
neutrons } 1.67 x 10-27 kg

• atomic number = # of protons in nucleus of atom

= # of electrons of neutral electrically
or complete atom
• atomic mass = the sum of the masses of proton and
neutrons within the nucleus  

Atomic wt = wt of 6.023 x 1023 molecules or atoms

 amu – atomic mass unit
1 amu/atom = 1g/mol

C 12.011
H 1.008 etc.
Chapter 2 - 2
 Atomic Structure
• Valence electrons are those that occupy the
outermost shell. These electrons are extremely
important, they participate in the bonding
between atoms to form atomic and molecular
aggregates.
• Valence electrons determine all of the
following properties
1) Chemical
2) Electrical
3) Thermal
4) Optical Chapter 2 - 3
 Electronic Structure
• Electrons have wavelike and particulate
properties.
– This means that electrons are in orbitals defined by a
probability.
– Each orbital at discrete energy level determined by
quantum numbers.
 
Quantum # Designation
n = principal (energy level-shell) K, L, M, N, O (1, 2, 3, etc.)
l = subsidiary (orbitals) s, p, d, f (0, 1, 2, 3,…, n -1)

Chapter 2 - 4
 Electron Energy States
Electrons...
• have discrete energy states (2,6,10,14)
• tend to occupy lowest available energy state.

4d
4p N-shell n = 4

3d
4s

Energy 3p M-shell n = 3
3s

2p L-shell n = 2
2s

1s K-shell n = 1
Chapter 2 - 5
 The order by which the electrons fill up orbitals
is as follows:

1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6 4s 2 3d 10 4 p 6 5s 2 4d 10 5 p 6 6s 2 4 f 14 5d 10 6 p 6 7 s 2 5 f 14 6d 10 7 p 6

The electron configuration of the elements is determined

experimentally. It is noted that there are some irregularities
inconsistent with the previously listed system. For ex,
copper ( Z=29) has the outer electron configuration to be
3d 10 4 s1 One would expect 3d 9 4 s 2
The reason for these irregularities is not precisely know

Chapter 2 - 6
 SURVEY OF ELEMENTS
• Most elements: Electron configuration not stable.
Element Atomic # Electron configuration
Hydrogen 1 1s 1
Helium 2 1s 2 (stable)
Lithium 3 1s 2 2s 1
Beryllium 4 1s 2 2s 2
Boron 5 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1
Carbon 6 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2
... ...
Neon 10 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 (stable)
Sodium 11 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1
Magnesium 12 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2
Aluminum 13 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1
... ...
Argon 18 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 (stable)
... ... ...
Krypton 36 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4s 2 4p 6 (stable)

Chapter 2 - 7
 Electron Configurations
• Valence electrons – those in unfilled shells
• Filled shells more stable
• Valence electrons are most available for
bonding and tend to control the chemical
properties

– example: C (atomic number = 6)

1s2 2s2 2p2

valence electrons

Chapter 2 - 8
 Electronic Configurations
ex: Fe - atomic # = 26 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d 6 4s2

4d
4p N-shell n = 4 valence
electrons
3d
4s

Energy 3p M-shell n = 3
3s

2p L-shell n = 2
2s

1s K-shell n = 1

Chapter 2 - 9
 The Periodic Table
• Columns: Similar Valence Structure

inert gases
give up 1e
give up 2e

accept 2e
accept 1e
give up 3e
Atomic #
H He
Li Be O F Ne
Na Mg S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Te I Xe
Cs Ba Po At Rn
Fr Ra

Electropositive elements: Electronegative elements:

Readily give up electrons Readily accept electrons
to become (+ ions). to become (- ions).
Chapter 2 - 10
 The Periodic Table
• all elements have been classified
according to electron configuration in
the periodic table
• Here the elements are situated, with
increasing atomic number, in seven
horizontal rows called period
• The arrangement in such that all
elements arrayed in a given column or
group have similar valence electron
structures, as well as chemical and
physical properties Chapter 2 - 11
 Electronegativity
• Ranges from 0.7 to 4.0,
• Large values: tendency to acquire electrons.

Smaller electronegativity Larger electronegativity

Chapter 2 - 12
 Atomic bonding in solid

• Primary ( or chemical) bonds :

– metallic
– ionic
– covalent
• secondary ( or physical) forces:
– van der walls bonding
– Are weak in comparison to the primary o chemical ones
– Secondary bonding is evidenced for the inert gases, which have stable
electron structures, and, in addition, between molecules in molecular
structures that are covalently bonded
– Hydrogen bonding, a special type of secondary bonding, is found to
exist between some molecules that have hydrogen as one of the
constituents
Chapter 2 - 13
 Metallic Bonding
•It is found in metals and their alloys

•Is nondirectional in character

•Bonding may be strong or weak; bonding

energies range from 68 kJ/mol for mercury to
850 kJ/mol for tungsten. Their respective
melting temperatures are -39 and 3410 C

Chapter 2 - 14
 Ion cores

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

Sea of valence
electrons

Chapter 2 - 15
Some general behavior of the various material
types (i.e., metals, ceramics, and polymers)
may be explained by bonding type.

For example, metals are good conductors

of both electricity and heat, as a consequence
of their free electrons.

By the way of contrast, ionically and

covalently bonded materials are typically
electrical and thermal insulators, due to the
absence of large numbers of free electrons.
Chapter 2 - 16
 Ionic bond – metal + nonmetal

donates accepts
electrons electrons
 
Dissimilar electronegativities  

ex: MgO Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 O 1s2 2s2 2p4

[Ne] 3s2 

Mg2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 O2- 1s2 2s2 2p6

Chapter 2 - 17
 Ionic Bonding
• Occurs between + and – ions.( metalic+nonmetalic) elem
• Requires electron transfer.( high electroneg+high electropoz)
• Large difference in electronegativity required.
• Example: NaCl ( Na=11, Cl=17)

Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal)
unstable unstable
electron

Na (cation) + - Cl (anion)
stable Coulombic stable
Attraction

Chapter 2 - 18
 Examples: Ionic Bonding
• Predominant bonding in Ceramics
NaCl
MgO
CaF 2
CsCl

Give up electrons Accept electrons

Chapter 2 - 19
 Covalent Bonding
• similar electronegativity  share electrons
• bonds determined by valence – s & p orbitals
dominate bonding
• Example: CH4
shared electrons
H from carbon atom
C: has 4 valence e-, CH 4
needs 4 more
H: has 1 valence e-, H C H
needs 1 more
shared electrons
Electronegativities H from hydrogen
are comparable. atoms

Chapter 2 -
 Summary: Bonding
Type Bond Energy Comments
Ionic Large! Nondirectional (ceramics)

Covalent Variable Directional

large-Diamond (semiconductors, ceramics
small-Bismuth polymer chains)

Metallic Variable
large-Tungsten Nondirectional (metals)
small-Mercury
Secondary smallest Directional
inter-chain (polymer)
inter-molecular
Chapter 2 - 21
 Summary: Primary Bonds
Ceramics Large bond energy
(Ionic & covalent bonding): large Tm
large E
small 

Metals Variable bond energy

(Metallic bonding): moderate Tm
moderate E
moderate 

Polymers Directional Properties

(Covalent & Secondary): Secondary bonding dominates
small Tm
s e co n d
ary b o
n di ng
small E
large 

Chapter 2 - 22