LIMITS

BY:-MASUM KUMARI
BRANCH-ECE-”B”
ROLL NO-100103172
SUBMITTED TO:-
SAMARJEET RAWAT
HISTORY
Although implicit in the development of calculus of the 17th
and 18th centuries, the modern notion of the limit of a function
goes back to Bolzano who, in 1817, introduced the basics of the
epsilon-delta technique to define continuous functions.
However, his work was not known during his lifetime (Felscher
2000). Cauchy discussed limits in his Cours d'analyse (1821)
and gave essentially the modern definition, but this is not often
recognized because he only gave a verbal definition (Grabiner
1983). Weierstrass first introduced the epsilon-delta definition
of limit in the form it is usually written today. He also
introduced the notations lim and limx→x0 (Burton 1997).
The modern notation of placing the arrow below the limit
symbol is due to Hardy in his book A Course of Pure
Mathematics in 1908 (Miller 2004).
MOTIVATION
Imagine a person walking over a landscape represented by the graph
of y = f(x). His horizontal position is measured by the value of x,
much like the position given by a map of the land or by a global
positioning system. His altitude is given by the coordinate y. He is
walking towards the horizontal position given by x = p. As he does
so, he notices that his altitude approaches L. If later asked to guess
the altitude over x = p, he would then answer L, even if he had never
actually reached that position.
What, then, does it mean to say that his altitude approaches L? It
means that his altitude gets nearer and nearer to L except for a
possible small error in accuracy. For example, suppose we set a
particular accuracy goal for our traveler: he must get within ten
meters of L. He reports back that indeed he can get within ten meters
of L, since he notes that when he is within fifty horizontal meters of
p, his altitude is always ten meters or less from L.
MOTIVATION
 We then change our accuracy goal: can he get within one meter?
Yes. If he is within seven horizontal meters of p, then his altitude
remains within one meter of the target L. In summary, to say that
the traveler's altitude approaches L as his horizontal position
approaches p means that for every target accuracy goal, there is
some neighborhood of p whose altitude remains within that
accuracy goal.
 The initial informal statement can now be explicated:
 The limit of a function f(x) as x approaches p is a number L with the
following property: given any target distance from L, there is a
distance from p within which the values of f(x) remain within the
target distance. This explicit statement is quite close to the formal
definition of the limit of a function with values in a
topological space
DEFINITIONS
To say that
means that ƒ(x) can be made as close as
desired to L by making x close enough,
but not equal, to p.
The following definitions (known as
(ε, δ)-definitions) are the generally
accepted ones for the limit of a function in
various contexts
FUNCTIONS ON THE REAL LINE
Suppose f : R → R is defined on the real line and p,L ∈ R.
Then we say the limit of f as x approaches p is L, and write
if and only if for every real ε > 0 there exists a real δ > 0
such that 0 < | x − p | < δ implies | f(x) − L | < ε. Note that the
value of the limit does not depend on the value of f(p).
A more general definition applies for functions defined on
subsets of the real line. Let (a, b) be an open interval in R,
and p a point of (a, b). Let f be a real-valued function
defined on all of (a, b) except possibly at p. We then say that
the limit of f as x approaches p is L if and only if, for every
real ε > 0 there exists a real δ > 0 such that 0 < | x − p | < δ
and x ∈ (a, b) implies | f(x) − L | < ε. Note that the limit does
not depend on f(p) being well-defined.
FUNCTIONS ON MATRIC SPACES
Suppose M and N are subsets of metric spaces A and B,
respectively, and f : M → N is defined between M and N,
with x ∈ M, p a limit point of M and L ∈ N. We say that the
limit of f as x approaches p is L and write
if and only if for every ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that,
dB(f(x), L) < ε whenever 0 < dA(x, p) < δ. Again, note that p
need not be in the domain of f, nor does L need to be in the
range of f.
An alternative definition using the concept of
neighbourhood is as follows:
if and only if for every neighbourhood V of L in B there
exists a neighbourhood U of p in A, such that f(U∩M - {p})
⊆ V.
 Functions on topological spaces
Suppose X,Y are topological spaces with Y a
Hausdorff space. Let p be a limit point of Ω⊆X, and L
∈Y. For a function f : Ω → Y, we say that the limit of f
as x approaches p is L (i.e., f(x)→L as x→p) and
write
if and only if for every open neighborhood V of L,
there exists an open neighborhood U of p such that
f(U∩Ω- {p}) ⊆ V. This last part of the definition can
also be phrased "there exists an open
punctured neighbourhood U of p such that f(U∩Ω) ⊆
V ".
PROPERTIES
If f is a real-valued (or complex-valued)
function, then taking the limit is
compatible with the algebraic operations,
provided the limits on the right sides of
the equations below exist (the last identity
only holds if the denominator is non-
zero). This fact is often called the
algebraic limit theorem.
PROPERTIES