Definitions and understanding of Horticulture

– Hortus and Cultura = garden cultivation

– Intensively raised crops

• Management levels and
• Scale of production
• Revenue generation is higher
PLACE OF HORTICULTURE
Horticulture Groups Classes & Divisions or Branches
1.2 Scope & Importance of Horticulture
 Importance of Horticulture
1. Food and Nutritional Security
– Important for dietary requirements which
includes vitamins, minerals and roughage
– Review the fruits and veges and the vitamins and
minerals they provide. (Assignment)
2. Medicinal properties
3. Environmental services/protection
4. Employment creation
5. GDP contribution
6. Forex earnings.
 1.3.1 Classification of Horticultural Plants

• What is classifn – Grouping of living things

(review Botany).
• 3 main systems used namely:
1. Taxonomy - de Candole –
2. Binomial Nomenclature - 2 name system
(Linnaeus)
3. Operational Classification ( More Applied)
1.3.1 Commonality in Classification of Horticultural Plants and
definitions
1. Fruits – a product of a mature fertilised ovary. Can
be fleshy or dry (Nuts)
2. Herbs – plants grown for medicinal and aromatic
properties
3. Spices – plants grown for medicinal and aromatic
properties but used in flavouring food
4. Vegetables – grown for either leaves fruits tubers,
bulbs and roots.
Herbaceous plant which is consumed in part or as whole
either as raw, boiled or fried as main meal or part of a
meal or as a snack
Taxonomy (Review)
Binomial Nomenclature
• Sweet Oranges – Citrus sinensis
• Sour Oranges – Citrus aurantium
• Mandarin - Citrus reticulata
Variety and Cultivar
Variety = naturally occurring group of plants within an
already described species

Cultivar = a cultivated variety which results from human

manipulation.
Operational Classification
An easy to understand system used in varying ways to
classify horticultural plants
 Classification of Vegetables and Fruits

Vegetables Fruits

1. Part Consumed 1. Climate and Temperature

– Leafy – Tropical
– Flower
– – Subtropical
Root
– Temperate
2. Lifecycle
– Annuals/bienals/perennials
2. Economic Importance
– Major
3. Botanical/Morphological
– Minor
features
3. Botanical/Morphological
– Fleshy fruits
– Nuts (dry fruits)
The Family and its importance
 2.0 Propagation of Horticultural Plants
• Definition – the perpetuation of plants
– Involves increase in numbers and genetic constitution
• There are 2 types of propagation
 1.3.1 Sexual, Parthenocarpy and Apomixis Propagation
SEXUAL PROPAGATION
• Most common for
transplanted plants. Either
use orthodox seeds or non
orthodox seeds.
APOMIXIS
• development of seed
without meiotic division
and fertilisation.
• Said to be a form of
asexual propagation
using seed.
 Nursery bed preparation:

1. Construct seedbeds of 1 m wide (sunken, level or

raised). Consider history of field

2. Incorporate 5 kg/m2 of Well Decomposed Manure.

3. If possible solarize bed to kill diseases

4. Form shallow furrows with a stick. Cosinder depth

based on seed sizes.

5. Sow seed and cover lightly with soil.

6. Pat firmly with a rake, mulch and then water
8. After seedlings emerge push mulch off the seedlines to allow
sunlight.
9. Irrigation and Prophylaxis of seedlings.
10. Hardening – 3-5 days before transplanting, reduce water to
harden seedlings.
10.Most seedlings are ready within 3 to 6 weeks (15-25 cm high).
Onion seedlings are
ready to transplant with 6 to 8 weeks

11 Transplant on a cloudy day or late afternoon/early morning.

 Advantages and disadvantages of sexual propagation

• Store seed for long periods • Takes long to reach maturity

• Only means of starting disease (fruits).
free plants • Do not breed true to type due
• Colonisation of large areas to crossing
possible in a short time
 Specialised Nurseries
• Structures used include:
– Greenhouse; Glasshouse; Shade neeting
construction.
• Materials used include:
– Cavity trays; germination boxes
– Germination cups, potting bags
– Potting or nursery media (Quality of media)
• Perlite
• Saw dust
• Coconut fibre media
• Pine bark media..
Asexual or Vegetative propagation
 Detailed Explanation Of Vegetative Propagation
• Rootage – Production of new plants through production
of roots
– Cuttings a detached method of rooting propagules
– Layers are an attached method of rooting propagules
• Graftage – Production of new plants by combining 2
plants that are compatible to form a successful union.
– Grafting joining mature plant parts to others.
– Budding joining a nature plant with a dormant bud.

• Division – Production of a new plant by separation

of plantlet from mother as in banana.
 Rooting Hormones use
• Used in difficult to root species when using cutting
• Also used with layers such as air layering
• Used either in powder form or as a solution.
• They increase the chance of root formation in woody
species.
 VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
• Definition of a vegetable –
– A herbaceous plant whose part is consumed as a
whole or in part, either boiled, cooked, fried or raw as
a snack, part of main dish or as a whole meal.
2.1.3 Micro Propagation of plants
2.1.4 Hardening of Nursery Plants
Advantages and disadvantages of Asexual Propagation
• Breed true to type offspring
• Reach maturity ie no juvenile stage in woody
plants

• Short lifespan as compared to seed raised

woody plants
 2.1.4 Hardening of Seedlings
• Also called conditioning
• Defn - Withdrawal of water/irrigation for 3 -5 days
before transplanting to reduce on mortality
1. Plants develop a waxy layer and hard tissue
2. Get used to the harsh environment
3. Reduce lag between water loss and intake.
• Based on types of vegetables onion is hardened
within either 7th or 8th weeks and cabbage in the
5th and 6th week.
• Water lightly a day or two pre transplanting to
reduce on root pruning.
 2.2 Horticultural Production systems
• Systems used in the production of horticultural
plants and crops
2.2.1 Home Gardening System – growing on a small piece
of land for home use.
2.2.2 Domestic Market G System – production for the local
markets within the city and internal boundaries
2.2.3 Export Gard’g system (trucking/airfreight) –
mainly for export to other countries (Kenya, Ethiopia)
2.2.4 Processing Gard’g system- production for value
addition such as pastes, squashes ,chilli sauces...,
 2.2 Horticultural Production Systems
2.2.1 Home Gardening system – production for home
consumption in which excess is given/sold to neighbours or
open market
2.2.2 Domestic Market Gardening System – growing for
the local market. The scale of production is small.

2.2.3 Export markets system- this targets markets in the

region and internationally. The products move by either trucks
or by cargo planes.

2.2.4 Gardening for Agro- Processing – growing to supply

industry to move from 1 to tertiary products.
2.2.5 Gardening for Seed Production – grow vegetables
and fruits to produce commercial seed to be sown by
commercial and different growers. Seed Companies such as
Seedco, Starke Ayres, Hazera Seeds, Klein Karoo, Hygrotech .....
, do this with seed growers to supply commercial seed.
2.2.6 Controlled environment gardening systems –
growing in green houses, glasshouses, tunnels, indoor lighting
system. ... Both temperature and humidity (relative humidity)
are regulated to provide optimal growing conditions. Screen
are also used to minimise insect incidence.
2.2.7 Organic Farming systems – producing crops without
inorganic additives . This has come into common use due to
health concerns and food contamination due to chemicals.
 3.0 Pruning and Training of Horticultural Crops
3.1 Definition of Pruning and Training
• A technique of cutting and removing unwanted growth to
achieve a desired plant form.
• Training (formative pruning) involves directing the shape and
form of a plant in both fruit and landscape species,
• Plant grows in response to light – upwards
• In the landscape trees might become dangerous to
both buildings and humans
• In fruit trees production & management operations
become difficult if trees are left to grow without
managing them.
Understanding Pruning
Importance of Pruning (Objectives)
 OBJECTIVES OF PRUNING
• There are 4 main broad objectives of pruning.
• Each of which has activities that are
conducted to achieve it.
• These are
1. Plant Health and Sanitation
2. Plant Production
3. Plant Physiology and
4. Aesthetics
 PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING & TRAINING
• Time – Flowering pattern of plant to avoid damage
• Apical Dominance – for branching to occur the
terminal bud must be pruned for plant to branch
• Resuscitate Growth – pruning done in old
trees to allow for regeneration.
• Creation of Shapes and forms as per desire
• Assessment of Shape and growth form of
plant so that plant’s physiology is not affected.
• Specialised tools/equipment and pruners –
important to avoid damage to plants.
 Plant Health and Sanitation
Goal is a clean and sanitary environment in the orchard
and landscape. It is achieved by the following actions.
• Removal of broken branches and dead wood since these
act as a source of infection and spread of disease.

• To open up the canopy for good air circulation to avoid

creation of microclimates that favour disease multipn.

• To remove diseased plant parts so that infections do not

spread.

• Reduce the risk of fires by removal of dead wood and

tinder to have a presentable and appealing landscape.
 .

Plant Production
The productive capacity of fruit trees is determined
by balancing reproductive and vegetative cycles of
the plant and how well the majority of the branches
are exposed to sunlight.
Pruning achieves plant productivity by:
• By balancing the vegetative parts & reproductive
parts of the plant, to obtain good yields. This
determines the amount of flowering and hence
fruiting that can be supported by the plant.
• Increased fruit size by removal of some fruiting
branches so that the bulk of food go to the fewer
fruits allowed to set.
 Production Continued

• Allows for a longer period of

production so that the fruit tree is
not exhausted, unlike when no
pruning is done.

• Improves the fruit size, and colour as

most fruits are exposed to sunlight.

• Avoid alternate and shy bearing by

regulating the way a plant flowers.

• Encourage the growth of

reproductive branches.
 Aesthetics
• The way plants are organised and their shapes are the most
important feature in ornamental horticulture. It is their visual
appeal that attracts people to botanical gardens and parks to
relax in the confines of nature.
• The plants trained, pruned and maintained to some desired
shape. In aesthetics there is training, formative pruning and
maintenance pruning.
• The method used to train and prune plants depend on
whether they are in a landscape, close to buildings or by the
roadside or possibly in an orchard.
• Topiary is a technique used to train and prune plants and
shrubs in a park or garden to give specific shapes and designs.
 Physiological Objectives
• Prune to avoid damage or slowed growth and production
by impact less on the physiology of plant.
• To remove apical dominance in species that exhibits the
effect such as in apples and pears. This stops a tall tree
with delayed branching.
• To rejuvenate old trees so that they can resume
vegetative growth.
• To allow deciduous plant species to conserve food
reserves during the cold season for a vigorous growth in
spring season.
• To dwarf some plants that grow excessively tall, by
excessive pruning.
 TECHNIQUES OF PRUNING
• Methods of pruning to be used influenced by the
species and Purpose of pruning.

• Is a tree being grown for fruits or for beauty.

• Based on the factors above, guides below are useful.

1 Pruning at the right time. In the southern tropics
this can be done in March through June for citrus
plants, while mangoes can be pruned immediately
after fruiting in March to April

2. To prune in stages so that there is no damage to the

plant. Cut and check later on and make other cuts.

3. Branches that grow inwardly in fruit trees must be

removed as they crowd the canopy reducing light
penetration, while leaving and encouraging
branches that grow outwards.
4. Prune by looking at natural processes of the
plant. Use the form and growth of plant to
create a good and desirable shape

5. Fruiting habit is critical to know as they aid in

deciding which are the fruiting and vegetative
branches (lateral and terminal buds and their
fruiting habits).

6. Prune growth that needs to be pruned first

such as dead wood and diseased branches.
7. The operations of pruning must be executed using sharp
equipment and right procedures. Do not damage the buds, tear
bark material and injure other branches when carrying out
pruning. Use of sharp equipment in pruning avoids leaving of
jagged surfaces on the cuts.

8. Cuts must be done close to the main branch so that stub dry out
and do not produce shoots from buds or are infected as they dry
out.

9. The distance of the cut from the bud must not be too close to it to
avoid death of bud as the cut wound heals. During healing there is
die back of tissue which can result in bud death if done close to it.

10. Too acute a cut (slanting) is, the deeper is the die back of the
wound.
 CARE FOR WOUNDS
Wounds once made promote callus tissue which covers wounds.
Without closure of the wound there is danger of infection that can
lead to decay of such wound and whole plant can be affected.
Wound healing will be determined by the following;

1. Environmental conditions. During winter the healing of

wounds is slowed down due to slowed physiological and
biochemical process.

2. The size of the wound determines the rate of healing.

Small wounds heal faster than large ones.

3. The number of wounds on the plant determines the speed

of healing. With many wounds, the healing is delayed .
4. Older trees are not as vigorous in healing as contrasted
to young ones. Therefore, healing is faster in younger
trees than in older ones.
5. When treated with healing paint or fungicides, wounds
are not as prone to attack unlike untreated ones.
6. The position of the wound being a factor with wounds
on the lower part of plant ground healing faster than
those further away.
In other cases pruning is not desirable. In species that
have parallel branches to main stem, allow for as many
branches as possible, which can can extend away from
it under pressure or by using the Spreader Board. The
method applies in branches with narrow crotch angles
 Pruning of Landscape and Agroforestry Plants
Pollarding is severe pruning executed when
the plant has reached its normal height.
The plant is cut and this forces it to
produce profuse branches. This method is
used in landscaping of urban ornamental
trees in narrow roads and streets.

Coppicing is used in agroforestry species and

in ornamentals. It is even more intense
than the former. Coppicing involves
cutting a stem/stems at ground or just
above ground level. A lot of stems form
and these may be thinned out or left. The
use of coppicing in agroforestry with such
species as Gliricirdia sepium, Sesbania
sesban and Calliandra spp, is a basis of
organic farming in vegetable and field
crop production.
Pleaching is the weaving together of
branches of rows of trees. This method
is used in public parks and in home
gardens. They create an extended
shade system or shelter. Gives a
pleasant representation and an
aesthetically pleasing environment.

Topiary is the art of sculpturing plants

by training and pruning to give them a
specific shape and form. Topiary is
assisted by use of metal frames, which
are created before hand and these are
placed over a plant so that it aids in
giving shape. Once it grows over the
frame, it is then pruned in line with
the design. Topiary is used in the
outdoor landscapes, indoors or in
small gardens.
 Pruning and Training Fruit Trees
Fruit trees are sensitive to pruning as they have
physiological requirements for fruit bearing and
vegetative growth.
The main goals and intentions in fruit trees are:
1. To guide and give shape to fruit trees according to
their growth habit and production requirements.
2.To develop strong branches on which the weight of
fruits are to be borne.
3. To control and retain the right number of branches
so that no two branches have a close crotch angle
hence helps to improve the production of fruits.
4. To control the period of first fruiting so that no fruiting
is allowed in early years to avoid damage to branches
and affect their productivity in later years. Early
production means shorter life span.
5. To allow for conducting of management operations
such as weeding, pruning, harvesting and spraying and
this is achieved by confining the plant to the area that is
available.
 
• When you want to prune fruit trees, the following must
be borne in mind. Lower branches must not be shaded.
The top branches must not have wide angles, but have
narrow ones. These will allow for sunlight penetration.
• Do conduct minimal pruning on young trees because
they will be retarded hence delayed fruiting.

• The other important requirement is that branches must

not` be allowed to overlap as they would block sunlight.
• The strength of branches and the trunk must be an
overriding consideration in pruning.

• Lastly the tree habit whether deciduous or evergreen

will determine the pruning objectives. Evergreens are
not pruned often except when removing dead wood,
water suckers, diseased branches and dead wood.
1. Central Leader
The method is used in fruit trees and shrubs with
a dwarf and semi-dwarf habit.
The end result of the system is conical shaped
trees.
The identified branches are trained to angles of
45 to 60 degrees crotch angles. Enough space
must be left between the tiers of scaffolding
branches.
The main branches are pruned back to allow for
branching. To avoid reduced production, water
suckers and other unwanted growth must be
removed.
The central leader must be allowed to dominate
so that it is not overshadowed. The shape
allows for great branching at the base and few
at the top. It is encouraged in areas with strong
storms and hailstorms.
The method is used with such fruits as apple,
sweet cherries and nut trees.
2. Modified Central Leader.
In this system you ensure that you first
form strong scaffolding branches.
These are developed like in the central
leader.
Once the last scaffold branches are
developed the main axis or leader is
removed. This gives an open centre
habit.
The clearance height is about 90cm for
last scaffold branches. Method is used
with Mangoes, Litchi, and avocado.
Most tropical and subtropical fruits are
trained using this system.
3. Open Centre of Vase System
Three or four branches are
developed radially across the
main stem identified early in their
life.
There is no main trunk encouraged.
The branches are developed with
radial distribution around the
stem with a narrow vertical
spacing from the ground so that
all stems are exposed to light.
The method is ideal for peaches
and other stone fruits. The
clearance height is 30cm.
 Establishment of a Vegetable Garden
1. Planning a vegetable
– Land terrain ideally gentle undulating land (0 -15 deg)
– Develop an enterprise budget.
– Organise inputs and resources
– Markets for the produce

2. Site Selection
– Climate
– Wind
• Soil fertility and depth
• Slope or Aspect
– Entrepreneural
• Market
• Labour
• Transport an Communication
4.3 Establishment & Management of a Vege Garden
• Land preparation by Ploughing/cultivating to a fine
tilth or prepare CT beds
• Add basal fertilisers (compd fert and WDFYM)
• Planting on flat ground or raised beds (season and
design of beds)
• Transplanting (3 to 8 weeks) operation or direct
seeding or sowing.
• Transplant early in morning and late afternoon
• Keep soil moist after transplanting until seedlings
“Take”
• Top Dressing Fertiliser with a straight fertiliser at
stipulated time.
• Irrigation of the Crop – frequency and mode
determined by season and soil type.
• Pest and Disease Management – Scouting for incidence
of destructive pests and diseases.
- Important to know the pests and diseases that affect
the given crop.
- life cycles and their distribution and when they are are
incident (ex Tuta and spidermites in tomato, DBM in
brassicas,...)
- When to effect preventive (prophylaxis) - and control
measures. Note the Withdrawal Interval in use of
chemicals
Harvesting – when does the crop reach maturity and what
determines when to harvest.
 5.0 Production of Individual Vegetables

• The Brassicas – Family Brassicaceae

 Head Cabbage – Brassica oleraceae var. capitata
 Rape – Brassica napus
 Chinese Cabbage - Brassica olereceae var chinensis
 Cauliflower – Brassica olereceae var botyrits

Exercise:
Identify other members of this family and give their
scientific names.
 Head Cabbage Production
Types of Varieties
• Early Maturity such as 12 weeks - Tropicana variety and Riana F1, Star 3308.
• Late maturing varieties take 16 weeks. Examples – Star 3317, Drumhead and Gloria
F1.
Climate, Soils and Land Preparation
• Cool Season crop though some varieties grow throughout including the rainy
season.
• pH is 5.5 to 6.5.
Seed Rate and Transplanting.
• Seed rate 500 – 600g/ha
• Transplant at 3 to 6 weeks after emergence
Spacing
• Spacing of transplants seedlings in the main field the depends on the type, with early
maturing types at 45cm x 30cm and late maturing types at 60 x 45cm.
Manuring and Fertilisation
• Basal Fertiliser includes Farm Yard Manure (FYM) 15Mt/Ha Well incorporated
• D Cpd (at 0 – 800kg/ha or Vegemix A at 0 – 600kg/ha.
• These are applied at transplanting or just before transplanting.
Diseases
Blackrot
Yellow veins from margins
with a V shape and when
severe becomes black
GAPS/GHPs

Peppery Leaf spot

Yellow spots
Top dressing must be applied two times. Therefore you must
split the fertiliser rate into 2. Split the 200 Kg of NH 4NO3, by
applying 100kg at 4 weeks after Transplanting and another
100 kg at 8 weeks after transplanting.

Irrigation Management
Determined by the Growth phase, season or weather
conditions and Soil properties.
In the 1st 3 stages post transplanting
•Supply enough water during these 3 stages

•Signs of water stress is whitening of leaves and

subsequent folding
Cabbage main feeding roots in top 0-5cm which zon
dries out fast

Maturity stage reduce amount supplied to avoid

cracked heads.
Pests
Diamond Backed Moth – larvae feed on
leaves causing hole perforations

Cabbage Budworm – larvae hatch in bud

tissue whose damage leads to multiple
heads that are small and uneconomical

Cutworms – attacks young seedlings and

plants in the main field.
Aphids mostly gray types that attack on
the lower surface causing leaf distortion

Cabbage Looper – a caterpillar that

attacks leaves
 Maturity, Harvesting and Marketing

• Maturity determined by
– Class: whether early medium or late maturity
– Management : mainly fertility and irrigation
• Head is firm when pressed at the top
• If not firm implies not mature not fully filled.
• Harvest before cracking sets in as leads to poor
market value.
• Pre irrigate lightly and harvest in the night or
morning,
• Market should be organised earlier
• Sell either by weight or by size
The Solanaceous Crops – Family Solanaceae
• Members varied from fruit producers and tubers
• Unique in that they produce alkaloids
 Tomato – Solanum lycorpersicum
 Irish Potato – Solanum tuberosum
 Bell pepper - Brassica olereceae var chinensis

Exercise:
Identify other members of this family and give their
scientific names and which are field crops and which are
vegetables..
 Tomato Production
Types of Varieties – classified based on growth habit
• Determinates /bushy - .
• Semi Determinates -
• Indeterminates vining -
Climate, Soils and Land Preparation
• Warm Season crop though some varieties grow throughout including the rainy
season. Temperature range of 18 – 27 Degrees for growth. Frost sensitive
• pH is 5.5 to 6.8.
Seed Rate and Transplanting.
• Seed rate 300 – 350g/ha
• Transplant at 3 to 6 weeks after emergence
Spacing and fertilisation
• Spacing of transplants seedlings in the main field depends on the type.
Spacing
 Important Management Practices

1. Staking - support plants

as it is a vine. Breaks
when heavy with fruits
 Avoid crawling insects
and fungi
 Improves quality of fruits
 Easy management
Types of Support
 Simple stick or
support/plant
 Trellis system
 Indeterminate Types under drip system (Amiran Ltd)
MonoAmmonium 250 Applied based on recommendations
Basal phosphate 250  At land preparation
fertiliser Multi K or Multi Potassium  15 kg each at week 11, 12, 13 &
14.
Applied like for MAP as shown below.
 At land preparation and
 Week 7 to 10 at 20 kg per week
 Weeks 11 to 14 at 50 Kg per
week
 Weeks 15 to 22 at 75kg per week

Top Polyfeed 520 Week 3 – 6 apply 35kg/week

Fertiliser Ammonium Nitrate 660 Week 7 – 10 apply 20kg/week
Week 23 – 26 apply 75kg/week
Week 11 to 14 apply 30kg/week
Week 15 to 18 apply 65kg/week
Week 19 to 22 apply 70kg/week
 NON DRIP SYSTEM FROM ZAMBIAN FERTILISERS/ ETG Starke Ayres only
Star 9008, Pre plant application 25g/plant or Plant population at 20 000 plants 500
Star 9061, SA Tom Basal kg/ha
Star 9062, Top Week 2 - flowering 17.5g/plant 350kg/ha

Star 9066, Top Week 6 - Fruiting 25g/plant 500kg/ha

Top Week 12 harvest 32.5 650kg/ha

Per Week
Star 9006 SA Tom Basal Pre plant application 28g/plant Plant population at 18 000 plants
Star 9009 504 kg/ha
Star 9010 Top Week 2 – 7 flowering 4/plant 360kg/ha
Star 9064.
Top Week 7 - 13 Fruiting 5g/plant 500kg/ha

Top Week 13 - 21 harvest 5.5 792kg/ha

Star 9030 SA Tom Basal Pre plant application 28g/plant Plant population at 18 000 plants
Star 9032. 504 kg/ha
Star 9035. Top Week 2 – 7 flowering 5/plant 450kg/ha
Star 9037
Top Week 7 - 13 Fruiting 6g/plant 702kg/ha

Top Week 13 - 25 harvest 5 g/plant 1080kg/ha

 STARKE AYRES METHOD USING UREA, MAP, AND D COMPOUND

Gypsum D Compd Urea Potash Magnesium

(MOP) Sulphate  

Broadcast B4 Ridging 600kg  

Basal Worked in B4 Planting 600Kg 0 0 0  

Top Dress 1 (2, 4,6 Wks) 0 0 8kg 40kg 0  

(Quantities per week)  

Top Dress 2 (8,10,12 Wks) 200kg 20kg 40kg 20kg  

(Quantities per week)  

Top Dress 3 (14, 16, 18, 20) 0 0 40kg 80kg 20kg  

Top Dress 4 (22, 24, 26, 28…) Apply 100kg Calcium Nitrate per indicated week – this is harvest period.  
2. Pruning
• 2.1 stems – 1 or 2 main
• Image sourced from Shutterstock
Done in its formative early
stages controls fruit size
• 2.2 leaves
Lower and diseased leaves
removed to expose fruit
for sound ripening
Dieased to avoid spread of
infection
Also efficient nutrient use.
Irrigation Management
Determined by the Growth phase, season or weather
conditions and Soil properties.
Water impacts on
•flower set and drop
•Cracked fruits
•Disease incidence
Supply sufficient amounts to encourage good growth.
 Irish Potato Production
Varieties –

Climate, Soils and Land Preparation

• Cool Season crop that is photo or temperature sensitive. Temperature range of
15 – 24 Degrees for growth.
• pH is 5.5 to 7.8.

Planting material Types.

• True potato seed – bought as seed and grown to be transplanted
• Seed Tubers that are whole
• Setts which are tubers that have been split

Spacing and fertilisation

• Spacing of setts, seeds and seedlings determined by the tuber size and the
planting system. Drip or non drip.
Spacing
Fertilisation of Irish Potato
 Important Management Practice

Earthing Up - bulking soil

around plant.
Done 2 times at 20cm height and
when plat covers ½ ridge
space.
 Increase yield – 2 or three
flushes
 Avoid crawling insects and fungi
 Prevents Potato Tuber Moth
(PMT)
 Prevent Greening of Tubers
Irrigation Management
Determined by the Growth phase, season or weather
conditions and Soil properties.
Water impacts on
•flower set and drop
•Disease incidence
Supply sufficient amounts to encourage good growth.

Drip and flood irrigation prefered though sprinkler

system can be used in the night.
 Pests
Spidermites – suck form leaves and
introduce toxins to fruits
•More destructive during hot months
•Mgt use Acaricides that are
recommended
Tuta Absoluta– miner that mines leaves,
stems and fruits.
Ladybird beetles
Cutworms – attacks young seedlings and
plants in the main field.
Aphids mostly green types.
Potato Tuber Moth
White flies

Management and Control Measures –

Recommended Insecticides
Diseases
Blights
 Early blight Phytophthora infestans
Late blight Alternaria solani

Rusts –

Mildews –

Leafspots

Blossom Endrot
 Maturity and Harvesting

• Maturity is reached when haulms stoop or bend

over.
• Yellowing of leaves and this is reached at about 120
days after planting.
• Harvest without bruising the tubers.
 clean them and dry them before packaging.

• Store them preventing PTM larvae.

 Onion Production
Family Alliaceae
• Bulb onion , Spring onion
• Chives., Garlic
Climate, Soils and Land Preparation
• Cool Season to warm season crop. Cool/cold for bulking and
warm for expansion. Temperature 13 – 24 deg for bulking and
25 – 30 for bulbing.
• Soil that is friable and loose that do not constrain bulb
expansion
• pH is 5.5 to 6.8.
Seed Rate and Transplanting.
• Seed rate 500 – 600g/ha for transplanting or 1500 – 3000g
direct sowing
• Transplant at 6 to 8 weeks after emergence. Though some
transplant earlier at 4 or 5 weeks.
Spacing and fertilisation
Irrigation Management
Onion is a shallow rooted crop
Frequency of irrigation should every 3 days.

As the bulb mature reduce amount of water.

Pests of and Diseases
1. Cutworms
2. Thrips

Diseases
Aspergillus niger
Thick neck
Purple blotch
Mildew
 Maturity and Harvesting

• Maturity determined by
– OPV varieties take longer eg 4 months while hybrids take 3
months to reach maturity after transplanting.
• Bulbs expand and leaves bend over at the neck.
• There is also whitening of the leaves.
• Lift bulbs and let them remain in the sun for 1 day
(Oct/Nov) or 2 (Aug/Sept) while turning them
• Dry them under diffuse light or net meshing.
• Yield ranges between 25 tonnes – 50 tonnes.
Baby Corn, Sweet Corn & Green Maize Prodn

Family Graminea
• Maize – Zea mays
Climate, Soils and Land preparation
• Warm season crop grows in temperature 24 – but grown
throughout year
• Fertile and deep soils
• pH range 5.8 – 7.0
• Be grown using conventional tillage or conservational tillage
 Distinctions among the 3
• BabyCorn – grown for the female rachis

• Sweet corn grown for its sweet kernels

– Classified into 3 main categories based on kernel
weight, sugar content and shelf life of the crop.

• Green Maize grown for the kernels

Sweet Corn Classification
Seed rate , Spacing and Fertilisation of the Crops
 Irrigation and Weed Management
• Irrigation important during most stages of the crop
– Sweet corn and green maize should be supplied
sufficient water during flowering to avoid gaps on the
cob.
– In general like other vegetables the key determinant of
irrigation is weather, crop stage and soil type.
• Weeds pose a threat to general crop performance
as they compete for growth factors. weed crop in
the 1 – 6 week window
– Use mechanical weed control
– Also employ chemical weed control
 Pests and their Management
• Fall Army worm (FAW) – Larvae destructive
feeds in funell – recommended insecticides
with a spray regime
• Stalkborers – leaf pinhole perforations and
tunneling of stem/stalk
• Aphids – mostly attack reproductive structures
• Leafhoppers eat leaves part also transmit
viruses
• Corn earworm – attacks the cob
– Recommended insecticides
 Diseases and their Management
• Maize Streak Virus – produce yellow to white
streaks on leaf blade. control leafhoppers
• Diplodia – mushroom suck like growth on the
cob as well as rotting of grain inside.
• Gray leaf spot (GLS) – Attack the leaves
– Recommended fungicides for fungal diseases
Maturity and Harvesting
 Module 4 Fruit Production
• Review what fruit Production is all about
• Types of fruits. (nuts, fleshy fruits. Pepo,
drupe, pome, pip fruits)
• Orchard - field in which fruits are raised.
Depending on scale some are known as
plantations.
• Orchards can be of pure stand or mixed fruits.
 Purpose of Growing fruits

• Economically
• Human nutrition
– Vitamins, Minerals and fibers
– Vitamins A to K and fruits sources (exercise)
– Do not have anti nutritional factors preferred by
patients.
 Orchard Site Selection

• Environmental • Non Environmental

– Soils – Market
• Deep – Transport and
• No Hardpans Communication
• Well drained
– Labour
– Climate
– Slope
– Wind speed++
– Precipitation ++
 Orchard Layouts
• Definition – a plan or pattern used to plant
fruit trees on the ground.
• Determined by the type of crown of the plant
and the terrain/slope of the land
• Prepared on paper as main farm design with
packshed, driveways and other facilities. This
is then interpreted on the site/at farm level.
• Different layout are used.
 Square System
• Plant trees on corners of a square
• Used with plants with a ... Crown

• Space occupied by one tree is S x S

• Advatanges of the system
• .......
 Quincunx or Star System
• A derivation of Square syst.
• Has two sets of squares :
– Main square filled with Main Plants with
a longer Life Span
– Filler square planted with Filler plants
with a shorter life span.
• Used to efficiently use the land. FP
removed as MP grow in size.
• Plant population is found by adding
the number of MP with that of FP
• Let a be number of rows of main
plants and b the number of MP/row
• Then Let c be the number of FP rows and d be
the number of FP/row.
• Plant Population equals to
(a x b) + (c x d)
• Advantages of the system
– Maximum use of land
– More plants grown per area pre removal of FP.
• Disadvantage
– Tendency to overcrowd and cumbersome to use
machinery.
 Rectangular System
• Plant fruit trees on the corners of
the rectangle.
• Used with lateral inflorescence
trees such as avocado
• Row spacing wider than within
row spacing.
• Number plants per hectare is
found by 100/l times 100/b
 Hexagonal/Equilateral Triangular system
• Plant on corners of an
equilateral triangle in plants with
circular crowns as dates,
coconut, oil palms, canary palm.
• Distance btn Plants wider than
btn Rows
• Area occupied by one plant given
by ½ S2*√3. s = dist btn plts
• Number of Plants per hectare is
• 10000/ ½ S2 * √3
• Advantages
– Allows movement/operations in 3 directions
– Better on slightly slopy land 10 -15 degrees to
block water erosion
• Disdadvantage
• Overcrowding as row distances are narrow.
 Triangular System
• Plant trees on corners of a
isosceles triangle.
• Distance between plants and
rows is the same.
• One plant occupies (d/2)2.
therefore of d is 8m the area =
(8/2)2 = 16m2. Number of plants
per hecatre = (10 000/16) = 625
•Advantages.
- Avoids overcrowding
- Good for slopy land as reduces power of the
water
• Disadvantages
- Gives less number of plants per given area as
compared to the hexagonal and square stems.
 Spacing of Fruit Trees in the Orchard
• What determines the spacing or
distance between plants in each
orchard layout?
– Species
– Growth form desired by grower
– The source of plant – seed or
asexual. Plants raised from seed
are larger than asexually raised
• Therefore the area occupied by
each given fruit tree should be
considered when determining
dimensions.
 Setting out an Orchard and Pegging
• Make a drawing of your
orchard on paper.
• Plan should indicate varieties,
species and any other
important information
• Transfer the paper plan to the
ground.
• Set the baseline for plating
your fruit trees.
• After marking out the field peg
out and dig the planting hole.
 Planting Hole dimensions and Digging.
• Holes are either square or circular .
• Hole centre is marked out using a
Planting Board
• In fertile deep soil dig to 45 – 60
cm depth while in shallow soils dig
upto 75cm depth.
• Depth of digging is meant to offer
unconstrained growth to roots as
plant.
• Planntinmg holes dug and refilled
2 or 3 months B4 Planting
 Digging and Refilling of Pit
• Based on depth heap TPS on one side and SBS on
the other.
• PIT refilling Get 10 - 15kg TPS and mix with
– 5kg of WDFYM
– 250 - 500g cpd A, C or V
– 20g Furadan or 25g Dieldrin
• The TPSM then goes first in the pit. Press light to
firm the soil.
• Add Ordinary soil of 5cm so plant does not come in
contact with fertiliser and termicides.
• Mark out centre and the fillup Pit with SBS.
 Planting

• Done with bare root or

with soil. Mostly at 1 - 2
months before rains
come.
• Diagram shows 2 basins
– Inner temporal and the
outer is permanent.
• After planting apply 20
litres for next 3 days
and later water weekly.
GENERAL ORCHARD MANAGEMENT
 MODULE 5 – Production of Selected Individual Fruits
Families to look at include
1. Rutaceae – Citrus Group
– Sweet Oranges, Sour Oranges, Lemons, Grape Fruit ....
2. Anarcadiaceae – Mango/cashew family
– Mango, Cashew, Morula....
3. Musaceae
– Banana and Plantains
4. Bromoliaceae
– Pineapple
5. Lauraceae
– Avocado
CITRUS GROUP
6. Rosaceae
– Tropical apples
7 Grapes
Climate and Soil Requirements
– Subtropical (Mediterranean type 5 – 13 degrees for
flowering to allow for good crop set and size.
– Deep well drained fertile soils
– pH range 5.5 – 7.5
Propagation and Planting Patterns
– Mostly grafted or budded seedlings are used,
except for lemons and trifoliate orange which can
be raised directly from seed.
– The citrus group is planted either to the
• Square or
• Rectangular systems
Spacing
Fertilisation and Irrigation
• Irrigation is very important in citrus in the tropics
due to the long dry season.
• Moisture stress during flowering in early spring
leads to flower drop and fruit drop
• Soils with hard pans are also affected by drainage
and water uptake hence require special care.
• Saturated soils – root roots and reduced lifespan
of trees.
• Moisture supply should be every 7days or 10
days at 30mm per application
• The grafted plants need a good supply of water
as the root system is shallow.
 Pruning Citrus Trees
• Citrus trees are not usually pruned, although
dead wood must be removed regularly.
• To avoid low branches reaching to the ground,
trees are skirted soon after the crop is removed.
• Branches reaching to the ground hamper the
removal of fruit lying underneath the tree,
impede irrigation and promote ant infestation
of the trees.
• When trees become too big and start growing
into one another, pruning is recommended.
 Pests and Diseases
1. Orange Dog Caterpillar of the Swallowtail
b/fly feed on leaves of young trees.
2. Scale Insects – Red, brown and cotton
cushion scales. Sucking insects that feed on
bark.
 Family Anarcadiaceae – Poison Ivy
Mango Production Mangifera indica
Cultivars:
Important characteristics include time of ripening, internal
quality, external appearance, fruit size, resistance to bacterial
black spot and other diseases, tree size and consistent yields.
None of the existing cultivars is totally resistant to bacterial
black spot.
Kent –
Tommy Atkins –
Kent –
Keitt –
Sabre –
Nolea -
Climatic and Soil Requirements
• Tropical crop but also grown in warm subtropics
• Dry season for flowering and wet season for bulking
• Temp range of 22 – 40 oC but Optimal 27 – 36 oC
• Some CV are more tolerant to high T
• Rainfall – 300mm to above 1200mm. Supplement with
irrigation.

• Wide range of soils as long as they are well drained with

low clay content soils – higher clay affect drainage
• pH range 5.7 – 7.2 below or above you get P and K
deficiency
 Layout, Planting Materials and Spacing

Mostly use the • Semi intensive – 6x3m

rectangular system • Intensive – 5 x 2.5m
though the square
system is as well used. • Standard planting
• Grafted seedlings are • 6 -8 x 3 – 8m
used.
• Under intensive
systems, pruning and
training is done.
 Fertilisation of Mangoes
• When to apply N is determined
by the harvest period.
1. Dec/January harvest
½ after harvest, ¼ in march & and
¼ as flower panicles start to
shoot (May – Aug)
2. February – March harvest
¾ after harvest and a ¼ as above
3. Apply K & P in btn N to avoid root
burn
Apply per Tree age in g/tree/year
Trace Elements Foliar applied include in absence of leaf and soil
Boron 300g/100l, Cu 200g/100l, Fe , analyses)
Mn 200g/100l and Zn 200g/100l
Mango exhibits Shy and
Calcium is important for quality and
Alternate bearing due to C/N
applied with K or P imbalances
 Irrigation
• Mango is drought tolerant as its roots can reach
down to 6m.
• However to avoid flower drop supply moisture in
months after flowering to reduce fruit drop.
Pests
• Mango Weevil (Sternochetus
spp) – use baits and Hygiene
Burry fruit and seeds 60cm deep
• Fruit fry females lay eggs in
fruits and maggots upon
hatching destroy fruit.
- Remove all dropped seeds and
use baits.
• Mango Tip Wilter attack
young mangoes upto t 4 years
old
Diseases
• Anthracnose – fungal disease linked to
high moisture/humidity . Fungicide prog
for mildews works for anthracnose
• Bacterial black spot also rain related
water soaked lesions end up giving black
spots on fruit. Copper sprays only means
to mitigate BLS
• Mildews – attack flowers mainly and
young tissues and fruits – control use
various fungicidal sprays.
• Jellynose/spongy tissue. – over ripe fruit
that breaks down due to ripening of
plant/tree.
 Maturity, Ripening and Harvest
• Harvest at the mature green stage at which
ripening takes place.
• Maturity is attained when upon picking the fruit
ripens and its flavour appeals to the consumer.
• Immature fruits do not ripen
• Ripening – a transformation that occurs in mature
fruit so that they are appealing and edible.
• Avoid the latex dropping on fruit skins as damages
the skins. Let it ooze out.
• Store at 80-85% RH and 21 deg for 3 weeks
Family Anacardiaceae – Poison Ivy
Cashewnut Production
Anacardium occidentale
Climatic and Soil Requirements
• An evergreen tropical crop but also grown in warm
subtropics. Which does not tolerate frost.
• Dry season for flowering and wet season for bulking
• Tolerates high temperatures but does well In 22 – 35 oC
with monthly average of 25 oC.
• Rainfall – 1 000 mm sufficient but to above 1500mm to
2000mm/annum as optimal. Only irrigate in the first year
with irrigation.
• During fruit drop wet and overcast conditions not ideal as
fruits can rot or start germinating.
• Nuts germinate within 4 days of lying on wet soil
• Wide range of soils as long as they are well
drained with low clay content soils – higher
clay affect drainage
• Deep sandy and sandy loams are ideal
• Drainage is very important for cashew
production.
• Poorly drained soils are not good for cashew
• pH Slightly acidic soils of 4.5 to 6.5 are
tolerated by the crop.
 Layout, Planting Materials and Spacing
Mostly use the rectangular system though the square
system is as well used.
• Grafted seedlings (Wedge and Side) use clonal
material of good parent plants
• Air layered Plants are also used
• Seeds are used to raise Root Stock for grafting. Select
Seeds that sink in water (Floatation method) Plant
them in bags 350 -400mm in an upright position.
Long tap root
• Grafting done with 3 – 4 months after germination of
seedlings
• Initial spacing of trees is at 8m x 5m first 3
years.
• As crowns start to touch this is set at 10-12m x
8m
Fertilisation of Cashew (LAN)
 Irrigation and Weeding
• Cashew is drought tolerant. Can go for several
months without moisture.
• However in the initial 3 years cashew is irrigated to
increase its growth and establishment.
• Irrigation used should not increase incidence of
mildews that affect yield.

• Weeding a must so that nuts can be easily seen as

the drop on the ground.
• Others prefer a mowed undecover to avoid soil
erosion
Pests
• Helopeltis
The insect is mosquito like and causes damage by
sucking the leaves young shoots and inflorescences
Attacked parts turn black and die back . An internal
browning extends for a considerable distance down the
shoot.
 
• Thrips -
• Leaf miner - leaf tunneling
• Spider mites - suck from leaves.
 
Diseases
• Anthracnose – fungal disease linked to
high moisture/humidity . Fungicide prog
for mildews works for anthracnose
• Mildews – attack flowers mainly and
young tissues and fruits – control use
various fungicidal sprays.
• Prevent incidence of mildews as they
affect crop performance. Up to 70 % loss
to yield and poor quality fruits.
 Maturity, Ripening and Harvest
• Nut Develops first and then the apple within 6 -8
weeks after flowering.
• Fruits and nuts must be picked immediately after they
drop and not to leave them overnight.
• Nuts should be allowed to drop to the ground before
they are collected
• If nuts are left on the ground for a long period they
turn from grey to brown and rot quickly in rain season
• Nuts rots quickly in the rainy season .
• The apple should be removed by twisting it off
• Average yields of 600kg/ha can be achieved.
 Cashew Processing

• Sun Drying after separation from apple for

a few days.
• Soaking/moisturizing nuts to reduce
breakages
• Roasting – expels acrid oil and fumes
• Shelling to separate the nut shell from the
nuts
• Removal of testa after drying of nuts.
• Grading and sorting based on
wholenesss/breakage
• Package after drying to 3% moisture
 Bye Products
• Cashew shell oil – used in manufacture of brake
linings
• Apple used in many ways
 FAMILY MUSACEAE Musa spp
• Dessert Types (2n) - Musa
acuminata,
M. sapientum, and M.
bulbinosa.....
• Plaintains or cooking types (3n) - M
paradisica
• There also exist non edible seed
bearing ornamental bananas
 Climatic and Soil Requirements
• A typical tropical crop – that does not tolerate
frost. Temp Range .......
• A drop in temp below 13 oC lead to chilling
damage fruits and plants
• Can also be grown in the subtropics

• Soils must be well drained and should have at

least 1.5m deep
• Soil pH of
 Cultivars and Propagation Materials
• Cavendish Types
– Dwarf cavendish
– Williams Cv
– Grande Naine

• Propagation Materials
– Tissue culture plantlets
– Peep Suckers: just emerged from soil no leaves
– Sword suckers: suckers with sword like leaves
– Maiden suckers: suckers with broad leaves not
flowered
– Rhizome sections
Spacing and Planting
 Irrigation and Fertilisation
• Supply sufficient amounts of water
so that production is maximised.
• Apply NPK fertiliser at 150 – 200
grams two (2) months after planting.
• You can bulk the soil by applying
organic manure yearly at about 10
tons per hectare. When plants are
mature apply 700 – 900 grams per
tree 4 times in a year.
• The fertiliser must be spread round
the base of the stem at 1.2 – 1.5m
away in a circle.
 Desuckering and Pruning/Propping
• Pruning is conducted to
• Removal of unwanted
remove old, dry and
suckers to maintain 3 or 2
diseased leaves
plants per station.
• Cut them using a sharp
• In the single and double knife to avoid tearing
row maintain main plant damage.
with fruit and a successor • Propping is also done
with next smaller one, when plant has a bunch as
• In the 3m x1.6m only one it is a pseudo stem can
plant per station is the break under strain
standard.
• Use a sharp knife to prune
 Pests
• Thrips – attack the plant by rasping
and sucking action leaving brown
colouration. Apply chloropyrifos once
a month or other RECOMMD..
• Nematodes – use nemacur but
copious application of kraal and
chicken manure suppress them
• Banana Weevil -attacks the plant
roots. New leaves wither due to
larvae boring the roots. Cut stem
close to soil surface and chop it to
avoid attack.
 Diseases
• Panama disease is caused by fusarium attacked rhizomes
have a purple colouration. Prevent it by use of resistant
cultivars.
• Sigatoka disease or Leaf spot – mostly attacks Cavendish
types in humid high rainfall areas. Symptoms are yellow
spots on leaves. Use mineral oil mixed with Copper
compounds.
• Bunchy Top Virus the virus causes brittle leaves and short
petioles. Good sanitation and virus free materials.
• Collar Rots/Crown rots ripe fruits.
• Banana Mosaic Virus – chlorosis of leaves
 Maturity and Harvesting
•Plants produce fruit 6 – 18 months after
planting.
•Harvest when fruit fingers show bulged whitish
colouration with rounded corners.
•Do not allow fruits to mature on plant as the
quality is poor due to sugars.
•Dip fruits in benomyl after cutting and cleaning
them and dry the bunch.
•Yield depends on level of management with 31
000kg – 61000 Kg in Latin America and of 22
000 – 34 000 kg in Africa.
•Store your crop at 11 – 13 degrees celcius.
• Early - Thin Dark Grn Right – Light Green wax and Late when Yellowing and Bulged
FAMILY BROMOLIACEAE – Pineapple Production
Ananas comosus
• Tropical Crop which requires optimal
temperatures of 25oC
• Rainfall or precipitation >1000 mm
• Range of soil types but prefer mildly acid
soils (pH 4.5–6.5).
• Remove stones and roots and plough/rip
to 800mm to 900mm depth.
• Ridge the soil so that you plant on ridges
for good drainage, temperature and
aeration
Propagation Materials
• Clones and not
varieties are the
main groups of
pineapple.
• Classification
based on fruit size
taste and whether
leaves have
spines/spineless
Clones Groups
 Planting Materials
• Suckers are used as
planting materials
• Crown suckers or Tops –
• Slips suckers – grow below
a poorly formed fruit called
a slip
• Suckers – true ones that
emerge below from
auxiliary buds.
 Spacing

The double row system being much more preferred than the
single row. Ridge design as illustarted below for DRS
 Fertilisation and Irrigation

• Add 300 kg/Ha of • To improve yield mulch

Potash and your field so that you
• 400 – 600Kg of Nitrogen reduce on erosion and
four (4) times before quality of fruit.
harvesting could be split • Irrigate every 2 weeks in
3 times. the hot season to
• 300Kg of Phosphate improve yields.
• Trace elements of Zn
and Mn must also be
applied
 Flower Forcing/Induction
• With the use of forcing agents, the pineapples
can be made to bear fruit at virtually any time
of the year.
• Why?
• It initiates flowering, shortens crop cycle and
increases yield
• It ensures uniform, complete and
concentrated cropping
• Ethephon is applied in water and releases
ethylene gas that is ripening or aging GR
 Pests
• Scale insects – attack leaves and stem in the dry season.
• Pineapple mealybug (Dysmicoccus brevipes) attacks the leaves, roots
and fruits. The infestation is recognised by yellow spots on leaves.
Prevent generational transfer by dipping in recommended chemicals.
• Nematodes - the Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp) which
become a problem on areas where the crop is grown repeatedly
after many cycles.
• Thrips (Thrips tabaci) and mites (Steneotarsonemus ananas) are
important in that the former transmit viruses.
• Perennial weeds such as Bermuda grass, sedges and other weeds do
compete for nutrients. These should be removed completely before
planting the crop. Once planted the use of mulch without seeds can
help in killing and suppressing weeds. Mulches should be used in
areas where soil drainage is good to avoid disease build up
 Diseases
• Heart rot caused by Phytophthora
cinnamom) and root rots by P. parasitica and
Pythium species.
• Pink disease of fruits caused by a bacterium
(Acetomonas spp.), that is transmitted to
ripe fruits. This results in browning of
canned fruits, but can be controlled by early
harvesting of the fruits. Bacterial diseases
are caused by Erwinia carotorova and E.
chrysanthemi
• Yeasts attack fruits damaged in the field due
to poor handling and management and
attack ripe-harvested fruits. This can be
avoided by early harvest and avoiding
damage as one handles fruits.
 Harvesting and Handling
• The fruits ripen 6 to 8 months after flower initiation and
fruit formation.
• Determined by genetics and the general management of
the crop maturity.
• Do not let fruits to fully ripen in field as yeasts will attack
leading to poor quality and wine like tasting fruits.
• 7 to 14 days after ripening signs you must pick the fruits.
• Once maturity and ripeness of the fruit is established
harvest by bending it over and twisting it from the stalk.
• Fruits for the fresh fruit market should be picked ripe, as
the quality is better than when they are picked before
ripening.
• The fruits are ripe when a colour change is seen on
the lower end. In smooth cayenne ripeness is
reached when they start showing a yellow or golden
colour on the lower part of the fruit, which colour
change, extends to the upper part.
• Other cultivars do get ripe whilst green or dark
green. The best way to ascertain ripeness is to look
at the individual flower sections.
• After harvest, the fruits should be handled with care
avoiding bruising and piercing the fruits.
• Yields – pels or main crop gives 38 – 75 tons/ha and
ratoons about ½ the main crop.
 AVOCADO PRODUCTION – Persea americana
Family Lauraceae
• CLASSIFICATION OF AVOCADO RACES
Climatic requirements
• The 3 best-known avocado races each has specific climatic requirements as a result
of adapting to their original environment.
West Indian cultivars originated in the humid, tropical lowlands of Central America
and are
• best adapted to continuous hot, humid conditions with a high summer rainfall.
• Like all avocado cultivars they are, however, extremely sensitive to drought and do
not tolerate frost well (minimum temperature of 1,5 °C).
• The optimum temperature for growth is 25 to 28 °C.
• The humidity should preferably be above 60 %.

Mexican races originated in the cool, subtropical highland forests of Mexico and
• mature trees can withstand temperatures of –4 to –5 °C. They should not be
planted in areas prone to frost as flowers are damaged easily.
• The optimum temperature for growth is 20 to 24 °C.
Guatemalan cultivars originated from the tropical highlands of Guatemala
and require a
• cool, tropical climate without any extremes of temperature or humidity.
The trees can withstand light frost, down to –2 °C, but the flowers are very
sensitive to frost. High temperatures of about 38 °C, especially if
combined with low humidity, could cause flower and fruit drop. A
humidity level of 65 % or higher is required.
• The Fuerte cultivar, which is the most popularly grown cultivar is probably
a natural hybrid between the Mexican and Guatemalan races and has a
wider climatic tolerance (especially to cold) than the pure Guatemalan
types.
• The minimum survival temperature is about –4 °C, but no frost is tolerated
during flowering.
• The optimum growth temperature is 20 to 24 °C, and high temperatures,
especially during flowering, are not tolerated well.
• • It is more sensitive than others to unfavourable weather conditions
during flowering. Hot, dry conditions could result in low yields because of
fruit and flower drop.
 Popular Cultivars
Fuerte - Good production potential
• Tree growth habit: large and spreading
• Hardiness: tolerates temp as low as –4 °C
• Exhibits alternate bearing, sensitive to
microclimate for fruit set
• Green skin advantage in DZZ identification
Hass - Good production potential in cool areas. Fruit is
smaller in warm areas
• Tree growth habit: fairly upright, slow grower
• Hardiness: tolerates temp as low as –2 °C
• Highest demand/acceptance
• Black skin a drawback in identification of DZZ
Pinkerton -
• Tree growth habit: moderately spreading
• Hardiness: tolerates temperatures as low as –1 to –2 °C
• Long postharvest period
• Limitations: flowering and fruit set over extended period
 Flowering Habit of Avocado
• Avocado flowers carry both male and female reprod organs.
• Each flower opens twice over a two-day period, the first day
as a female and the second day as a male.
• This enables the classification of varieties as either an A or a B
type flower. Air temperature regulates the opening and
closing of flowers.
• There are three (3) requirements for a successful fruit set:
1. An overlapping of the flowering stages
2. Significant insect activity, including bees
3. Temperatures above 10o C during flowering and for the three
days following.
• Flowering normally lasts for three to four weeks.
Flower classification and Varieties
 Layout and Spacing of Trees
• The square system and the Rectangular systems used.
Spacing
• The spacing should aim at efficient utilisation of space.
• Thinning should be later carried out to avoid crowding.
• The choice of planting distance and the pattern of planting
depends on the following factors:
1. Cultivar
2. Location of orchard (e.g. north or east facing)
3. Soil type and depth
4. Expected short and long-term production
5. Access for machinery, depending on orchard practices
6. Thinning practices.
• Range
Fertilisation of Avocado in grams
 Irrigation
The purpose of avocado farming is to obtain optimum yield
and reduced vegetative growth from an orchard.
• By applying half the calculated volume of water per tree
after the moisture-stress period (June/July), new growth is
retarded, competition with the young fruit is restricted and
fewer fruit will abort.

• After fruit-set full irrigation is applied to encourage a flush

for fruit growth.

• No fertiliser should be applied during flowering and early

fruit-set, because it would also encourage vegetative growth,
which competes with the young fruit for nutrients and water.
 Pests of Avocado
Fruitflies
• It lays its eggs just under the skin surface.
• When the fruit is about golfball size, a sting lesion appears as a slight puncture
mark surrounded by white powdery exudate.
• As the fruit develops the lesion becomes dry and distinct star-shaped cracks in
the skin surface occur
Scale Insects (heart Shaped)
• The female lays upto 200 cream-coloured eggs which are kept underneath the
body in the white, woolly secretion.
• The young scales, known as crawlers, eventually become permanently fixed in
one spot.
• In this way the new leaves become infested. There are 2 generations per year.
The summer generation lasts 5 months and the winter generation 7 months.
• The young are produced mainly during November and April. The scales occur on
the back of avocado leaves where they suck the sap from the leaves.,
• The heaviest infestations occur on trees of the Hass cultivar.
 Diseases of Avocado
• Phytopthora root rots- moved with water
– Retarded growth, bare plant with small leaves.
– Affected roots are black and break off . Avoid
water logged condns
• Anthracnose –
– causes fruit spotting
– Fruit dipping using recommended fungicide
• Cercospora spot
– Brown fruit lesions
 Maturity
While the fruit is on the tree, it remains hard. It becomes soft
and edible only after picking.
• A mature fruit ripens evenly. The edible part acquires a smooth,
buttery texture and the peel shows no sign of shrivelling.
• Immature fruit, that is fruit picked too early, will not ripen
properly and the skin will eventually become shrivelled.
• Picking maturity
• The maturity of the fruit is closely related to moisture content.
• The fruit is normally ready to be picked when it has a moisture
content of about 80 % or less.
• Store the fruit at room temperature until it ripens.
• An avocado is ripe when it yields slightly to light pressure
applied on its entire surface