Identifying the barriers to the deployment of

solar cookers in the energy-poor households

of sub-Saharan Africa

Bsc(Hons) Renewable Energy Dissertation

Authored by Sarah Cochetel
May 2012 Supervised by Dr. Peter M. Connor
 Layout of the Presentation

1. Why Sub-Saharan Africa

2. Traditional Cooking Methods
3. Solar Cooking Technologies
4. Barriers to their Dissemination
5. Conclusions & Recommendations
Sub-Saharan Africa

As defined by dictionnaries: “The region of

Africa to the South of the Sahara Desert”

49 recognised nations
(incl. Sudan and South Sudan)

850 million inhabitants

Why Sub-Saharan Africa?

 70% have no access to electricity

 657 million depend entirely on

biomass and coal as primary

cooking fuels

 Corresponds to 58% of total

energy use in the region

Source: The World Bank 2011
Traditional Cooking Methods

• Three-Stone Fire

• Environmental Impacts

• Health Impacts

• Socio-economic Impacts
Three-Stone Fire
Key Points:

 Only 15% efficient

 Quick and simple way to cook

 Important part of the culture and family

bonding

 Source of heat and light

 Smoke keeps insects away (e.g.

mosquitoes responsible for death by

Three-Stone Fire. Source: Reed 2010 malaria of 600 000 Africans in 2010)
 Environmental Impacts
Uncontrolled collection of firewood

Deforestation
Displacement
of people

Formation of micro-climates:
Desertification (expansion of the Sahara),
Floods and Droughts
Direct Health Impacts: Smoke
Carbon dioxide and monoxide, nitrogen
Smoke in the kitchen. Source: Benanav N.d.
Women and children’s exposure levels:
• 100 times WHO’s recommendations
• equivalent to 2 packs of cigarettes per day
• 2 to 4 times greater than men’s
Combustion of Biomass releases:
oxides, benzene, sulphur, arsenic and
particulate matter
Indoor Air Pollution IAP
(1.6 million deaths per year)
Diseases and Illnesses:
Acute respiratory infections, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease, lung
cancer, pneumonia, tuberculosis,
cataracts etc.
Direct Health Impacts: Wood Collection
Facts on these journeys:

 Implicated: Women and children

 Distance: 10km or more

 Load: avg 20kg per person

 Time: avg 40h per week

 Trips can last up to a few days

Health Risks:
 Heat strokes

 Back pain & other orthopedic injuries

 Animal attacks (elephants, snakes etc.)

Darfuri refugees gathering wood. Source: Farrow 2009
 Others e.g. walking on landmines
 Social Impacts
Direct impacts:
 Risk to be insulted, raped, tortured
and/or murdered.
 Risk of creating political tensions with
other locals (especially for refugee
populations).

 Secondary impacts:

 From inactivity e.g. lack of income-

generating activities or education. Leads to
gender inequalities etc.

 From climat change e.g. formation of

climatic refugees and displacement of
Malian women gathering wood. Source: Kev 2008. thousands of people.
Economic Impacts
 Cost of firewood rapidly
increasing due to fuel scarcity

 Limited choice of alternatives

 Represents significant portion

of income

 Sometimes more money is

spent on firewood than food
Women purchasing wood at an Ethiopian market. Source: Donna N.d.
Solar Cooking Technologies

• Solar Resources

• History of Solar Cooking

• Most Common Designs

• Benefits from Solar Cookers

Solar Resource

Ideal latitudes for solar cooking

are between 40° N and 40°S.

In ideal areas, solar radiations

vary between 4.5 and 8.5
kWh/m2/day.

Ideal climatic areas are desertic

zones. In the Sahel, up to 300
sunny days per year.

African Solar Radiation. Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory 2010.

 History of Solar Cooking
 Solar reflexion used thousands of years
ago by Greeks, Romans and Chinese for
military purposes.

 First publications on solar cooking in

1767 by Horace de Saussure, French-Swiss
scientist.

 First practical applications: 1950’s.

 Full potential acknowledged after the

1970’s oil crisis.

 Solar Cookers International founded in

1987.

Barbara Kerr and Sherry Cole with their first solar cooker. Source:
 In the 1990’s, sporadic efforts from UN PCIA 2010
sub-divisions.
Most Common Designs: Parabolic Cookers
Key Points:

Focuses sunlight straight on the black pot

Most efficient (up to 1200W, 250°C)

Same cooking times and practices as

conventional cooking methods

Most expensive type

Complex structure and manufacturing

Parabolic cooker. Source: SCI N.d.
Bulky – requires a lot of outdoor space
Most Common Designs: Box Cookers
Key Points:

Insulated box making use of direct and

diffuse sunlight

Most widespread technology

Easy to construct and design

Can hold a few pots

Can be made of many materials e.g.
cardboard, wood, plastic or metal
Less than half the price of parabolic cookers

Lower ratings (200W, 180°C)

Solar box cooker. Source: SCI 2012

Most Common Designs: Panel Cookers
Key Points:

Reflective panels focusing light on

black pot contained within plastic bag
Cheapest design
Usually made of cardboard and
aluminium foil
Simplest design (CooKit) distributed
widely by NGOs in refugee camps
Easy to fold and transport Panel cooker CooKit. Source: SCI 2012

Lowest efficiencies
Technical Advantages

 Save 1 to 2 tons of firewood per year.

 No negative health impacts.

 No fire i.e. children can safely attend

to the food.
 Save time and do not require stirring.

 Non-permanent structures and so

can be deployed quickly. Panel cookers in Chad. Source: JWW 2012

 Can easily be made of recycled material (e.g. with Tetra Pak).

 No need for much water or oil so the food is healthier and contains more nutrients.

 Food doesn’t burn i.e. less cleaning is involved.

Socio-economic Advantages
 More time for women and children to attend to other
activities e.g. school, income-generating activities,
gather other fuels to meet the rest of the household’s
energy requirements etc.

 Potential for men and women to share familial tasks

and break down gender issues.

Women baking cakes. Source: SCI 2012

 Saves the household’s income and solar

cookers are quickly repaid.
 Lots of impacts on local economy and
creation of jobs.
Baking business. Source: SCI 2012
Barriers to the Dissemination of
Solar Cooker

• Technical Barriers

• Public Perception

• Institutional and Political Barriers

 Technical Barriers

• Weather & Other Environmental Issues

• Design & Material Related Issues

• Inaccessibility of Materials & Lack of Infrastructure

• Other Technical Issues

 Technical Barriers:
Weather & Other Environmental Issues
Problems:

 Dependance on weather (intermittency, sunny hours, seasons etc.)

 For shortest cooking times, need readjustments

 Unsuitability of cooking times

 Rain, sand, dust and cleaning reduce rating by 25%

 Wind blows away some cookers (e.g. parabolic designs)

Solutions:

 Improve design

 Use higher quality materials

However, these lead to other financial barriers…

 Technical Barriers:
Design & Material Related Issues
Comparison of Different Types of Solar Cookers
Type Cost Safety Ease of build Cooking speed Cooking Longevity Other
capacity

Lowest
Need to
(cardboard
Lowest replace plastic
4-6 susceptible to
Panel Safe Easy Several hours bag, no adding
4-7USD people moisture &
or stirring
insect
possible
degradation)

Medium/
Low depends on No adding or
Depends
Box Safe Easy Several hours materials (glass stirring
20USD on size
window can possible
break)

Similar to
May conventional
Complicated
High cause stove but
(requires Depends High/ depends May burn food,
Parabolic burns & requires
60USD specialised on size on materials bulky
eye adjustment to
materials)
injury the sun every
15min
 Technical Barriers:
Inaccessibility of Materials & Lack of Infrastructure
Problems:

Need for local solar cooking business for after-sale service and

maintenance.

Difficulties in obtaining aluminium plates or foil, glass, mirrors, black

pots or plastic bags.

Supply and distribution issues due to lack of infrastructure especially in

rural areas and on islands (in 2004, only 10% of the roads where paved,

little access to electricity, literacy rare).

Administrative and logistical issues often the reason behind the slow

development of such projects e.g. Burkina Faso vs. South Africa.

Solutions:
Rural Population of Sub-Saharan Africa.
Source: The World Bank 2012
 Solving issues locally

 Action from governmental bodies (long and slow process)

 Technical Barriers:
Other Technical Issues
 Long cooking times.

 Need to expose the food outdoor.

 Need outdoor space (in urban

dwellings, solar cookers go on the
roof).
 Risks of thefts, poisoning, damaging
from children and animals.
 Rarely used as stand-alone systems,
only saves up 40% of fuel on average.

Cooking times. Source: Hanna & McArdle 2012

 Public Perception
• Traditions & Beliefs

• Gender Inequalities

• Adoption Criteria of Energy-Poor Households

• Perceived Financial Benefits

• Image of Solar Cookers

 Public Perception:
Traditions & Beliefs
Problems:
 More than 3000 ethnic groups with their
own beliefs and traditions (e.g. in Uganda, 3
stone fire strongly linked to marriage).
 Designs do not meet aesthetic standards
(e.g. square shapes).
 Where traditions are unshaken, adoption Masai communities and solar cookers. Source: SCI 2009

levels are the lowest: due to educational

gaps, people do not believe the sun is capable Solutions:
to cook.  Involving communities to design their own cookers

 Turn to their beliefs for explanations: “work  Using their beliefs “against” them e.g. Sabbath
 Use appropriate promoting strategies
of the devil” and “black magic”.
 Public Perception:
Gender Inequalities
Problems:
 Financial/household decisions taken by men even for cooking matters.

 Gathering wood doesn’t have a real perceived value and its dangers are not recognised.

 Some men are scared for their wives to have free time and idle, are not ready to change
cooking hours/habits or beat up women if the food tastes differently.
 Others liked it because women can have more time to take on some of their own tasks.

 In some cultures, men and women have to be addressed to separately.

Sudanese boys attending school. Source: Africa

Educational Trust 2008
Solutions:
 Promotions and demonstrations to bring together men and
women concerned
 Getting men to acknowledge the danger of firewood gathering
 Public Perception:
Adoption Criteria of Energy-Poor Households
Problems:
Field studies determined 3 key factors for the adoption of solar cookers:
 Reduce fuel consumption (less than anticipated, not stand-alone system due to technical

barriers)
 Similar cooking times (much longer than

other techs)
 Similar or better functionality (impossible

to roast or fry)
 Food has different texture and colour

 Different criteria in rural and urban areas

Solution: Integrated Cooking Systems

Integrated Cooking System. Source: Whitfield 2005
(Solar cooker + heat retention basket + improved stove)
Public Perception:
Perceived Financial Benefits
Problems:
 Although heavily subsidised, price is
still high.
 Cooking not necessarily a priority to
invest in.
 Some refuse credits (“do not believe” in
being indebted).
 Concepts of “saving”, “investing” and
“ROI” are not fully understood.

Solutions:
Poverty gaps in sub-Saharan Africa. Source: The World Bank 2012
 Give access to information & education

 Promote intelligently
 Public Perception:
Image of Solar Cookers
Problems:
• Some products have a low quality in order for NGOs to reduce their costs.
• When distributed for free, end-users do not have a sense of ownership.
• Why aren’t higher social classes buying too?

Designs considered as “cheap”, for lower-classes, people get “bored”

Solutions:
Promote the idea “simple is beautiful” Advertise additional uses of solar cookers:

Non-food uses:
Food-related uses:
Smelting, making wax, sterilising soil,
Pasteurizing water at 65°C, preparing hot
warming irons to iron clothes, making the
drinks e.g. tea, making jams and sauces,
laundry, making cosmetics e.g. karité butter,
drying vegetables and fruits, baking cakes,
sterilising medical kit and distilling water
heating milk, killing insects contained
for batteries…
within seeds…
Institutional and Political Barriers

• Poor Project Planning & Promotion Strategies

• Financial Barriers: Subsidies or Market Development?

• Lack of Coordination & Linkage

• Other Political Barriers

 Institutional & Political Barriers:
Poor Planning &
Many solutions:
Promoting Strategies  Plan ahead for 5 years and do background

research with anthropologists and experts.

Problems:  Come up with step by step development
 Poor image from the 1960’s, 1970’s and 1980’s due to: with constant feedback.

o Weak implementation strategies  Carefully select promotion times and

o Lack of training places.

o Immature/untested technologies  Involve people together at village feasts etc.

 Make sure problem is well understood.

 Lack of background literature available for planning
 Institutions e.g. SCI or JWW provide
(only 2 docs from 2004)
training for volunteering promoters.
 Error of promoting just one design
 ICS promoted only since 2008, need to

establish new promoting strategies.

Institutional & Political Barriers:
Financial Barriers: Subsidies or Market Development?
Natural progression of technologies:

R&D Demonstration Commercialisation

 NGOs subsidise partially or fully but not viable: need funding.

 Governmental grants and CDM mechanisms often have strict administrative conditions.
 Subsidies sometimes get in the way of commercialisation.
 Hard to find motivated local entrepreneurs which have enough funds and capacity.
 Give access to micro-credits, low-interest loans, barter arrangements, layaway plans, hiring “only
on sunny days”.
 Remove gender barrier as women do not always have access to these services.

Solutions:
 National & inter-regional governments must collaborate with banking institutions and propose
adequate funding schemes e.g. aim subsidies at the poorest.
 Get involved with GEF Small Grant Programme?
 Follow China’s example?
 Institutional & Political Barriers:
Lack of Coordination & Linkage
Issues:
• Internal problems (e.g. UNHCR in Aisha camp).
• Lack of collaboration on the field (e.g. JWW, CARE and WFP in Chad).
• Lack of coordination between agencies (e.g. UNHCR distributing firewood).
• Lack of monitoring & project follow-up.
• Lack of transparency in publications of results and lack of sharing information.
• NGOs compete against each other.

Some have collaborated:

 EG Solar and CARE in Chad
 Senegalese government and UNDP
 SCI and JWW, KoZon and GIZ in Kenyan and Ethiopian refugee camps

Solution:
 Connect everyone, reunite all efforts via the Solar Cooking World Network
 Formation of groups e.g. AFRECA
 China: considerable investments and collaboration between government and industry
Institutional & Political Barriers:
Other Political Barriers
Problems:
 After 1970’s, creation of many Energy departments/ministries but funding for
renewables dropped quickly.
 Other priorities e.g. electrification and consolidation of national utility companies.
 Lack of willingness and corruption (e.g. Nigeria) from fossil-fuel lobbying companies
and others.
 Lack of access due to warfare, terrorism, kidnapping etc. Domestic transportation
problems.
 No clear strategies & policies (suggestion of housing plan but no follow-ups).
 Need set of standards, manufacturers must give guarantees.

Some initiatives:
 East African Community, with GIZ and UNDP, to give access to clean cooking
technologies to half its population by 2015.
 8 countries joined the ProBec.
 Clean Cookstove Alliance (worldwide).
Unknown outcomes!
 AFREPREN/FWD active since 1987.
 Conclusions & Recommendations
• Some issues too great to be solved by solar cooking strategies e.g. lack of education,
infrastructure etc.
• Changes take time: need appropriate long-term mechanisms.
• Need to promote intelligently and listen to the end-users’ needs (depending on
culture, religion, gender status, living areas etc.).
• NGOs, governments, industry and local small-scale businesses need to work in
collaboration and total transparency e.g. China.
• Governments must create partnerships with banking institutions and create
appropriate pro-poor energy policies to remove the barriers for NGOs.
• Need to keep investing in better designs, but focusing more on reducing production,
marketing and end-users’ costs.
• Advocate Integrated Cooking Systems and avoid repeating past errors.
Thank you for your attention