Structural Diagrams:

Framing
(Non-concrete/ non-metal)
Referenced Materials

Jeff Graybill
&
Johanna Mikitka

AE-390
Professor James E. Mitchell
October 20, 2004
 Navigate the System:
 System Description
 Transmission of Loads
 Loads to Consider
 Detail for Dead Loads
 Foundation Systems
 Terms of the System
 The System According to the class & Comments
 Typical Uses
 Limitations
 Materials and Construction Issues
 Numeric Parameters
 Alternatives to Timber Construction
 Typical Uses and Applications
 Aluminum Structural Framing
 Aluminum / Fiberglass Columns
 Other Potential Alternative Building Materials
 Advantages to Non- metal/concrete Structures
 Generalizations
 System Description
A Framed Building is a structure whose weight is carried by the
framework instead of by load-bearing walls. The term
includes modern metal and reinforced concrete structures as
well as timber-framed buildings.
There are several techniques for wood framed constructions:
 Balloon Framing- A skeleton of light machine-cut uprights or studs is attached to the joints or
horizontal members by nails to form a cage or crate, with clapboard covering also nailed so that the
whole is held together by nails. The studs run from sill to roof plate, spaced about 16 inches apart.
 Post and Beam- An ancient and, structurally, the simplest type of construction: vertical members
(columns, posts, piers, or walls) support horizontal members (beams or lintels).
 Platform Framing- see Balloon Framing (Platform framing differs from balloon framing in that the
vertical members run from platform to platform rather than from sill to roof plate.)
 Half-timbering- A method of construction in which walls are built of interlocking vertical and
horizontal timbers. The spaces are filled with non-structural walling of wattle and daub, lath and
plaster, etc.

What about the loads?!

All definitions taken from The Penguin Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture.
 Transmission of Loads
LOADS

TRIBUTARY AREA
BEAMS BEAMS BEAMS

GIRDERS GIRDERS GIRDERS

C C C
O O O
L L L
U U U
M M M
N N N
S S S
FOUNDATION SYSTEM
THEY MADE IT! THE LOADS HAVE REACHED THE GROUND!

What loads must be considered in building design?

What types of foundations systems are available?
 Loads to Consider
 Dead Loads:
“Dead loads consist of the weights of the various structural members and the
weights of any objects that are permanently attached to the structure.”
(Hibbeler)
 Live Loads:
 Building Loads
 Wind Loads
 Snow Loads
 Earthquake Loads
 Other Loads:
 Blast Loads
 Variance in temperatures
 Uneven settling of soil
 Dead Load - Design Loads
Plywood 36 lb/ft3

Wood, Douglas Fir 34 lb/ft3

Wood, Southern Pine 37 lb/ft3

Wood, Spruce 29 lb/ft3

Wood studs 2x4, unplastered 4 psf

Wood studs 2x4, plastered one side 12 psf

Wood studs 2x4, plastered two sides 20 psf

Contents of Table from Hibbeler - based on Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-98.
Foundation Systems

Graphic: http://www.slcc.edu/tech/techsp/arch/courses/ARCH1210/Photos/Fndtyp.jpg
 Terms of the System
1. Posts - In timber-framed buildings the main vertical
timbers of the walls.
2. Girder - A box girder is of hollow rectangular or
other closed cross-section with transverse plates
5 or other diaphragm members at intervals for
7 6 strengthening.
4 3. Principal Beam - In the body of a building a main
horizontal timber supporting floor or ceiling
joists.
4. Joist - Horizontal parallel timbers laid between the
3 walls or the beams of a building to carry the
2 floorboards.
5. King Post - A vertical timber standing centrally on a
tie- or a collar-beam and rising to the apex of the
roof where it supports the ridge.
6. Rafter - Inclined lateral timbers sloping from wall-
top to apex and supporting the roof covering.
7. Ridge Beam - A horizontal, longitudinal timber at
1 the apex of a roof supporting the ends of the
rafters.
All definitions taken from The Penguin Dictionary of
Graphic from Ching. Architecture and Landscape Architecture.
 In terms of the Class
 Class Definition of a System -"A series of individual components
interacting in order to ensure that a design functions as desired.”
 In wood framing, the individual components are the different types of timbers
explained in Terms of the System.
 Subsystems of wood framing include the following:
 Foundation - needed to support the structure
 Walls - often fabricated and installed as single components
 Roof - many roof options are available (due to complexity of these systems, no
detail has been provided). Roof constructions include crown-post, king-post, truss,
gable, hammerbeam, hipped, gambrel, mansard, helm, etc.
 Joint systems - there are many techniques for connecting the timber members.
Some techniques include mortice and tenon joints, steel plate connections, bolts,
nails, screws, etc.
 The desired function for a wood frame is to adequately meet the spatial and
aesthetic needs as well as be structurally adequate to handle all potential loads.
 Typical Uses for Wood Framing
 Residential Construction
 This is the most common use
 Timber can be used to create many aesthetically pleasing irregular shapes
 Economic/convenient source of building materials
 Durable for residential use
 Ease/speed of construction
 Small Commercial Buildings
 Many small commercial buildings are similar to residential construction
 Modular quality is advantageous
 Barns
 Ease/speed of construction
 Simplicity & Durability of structure
 Modular benefits
 Camp/Park facilities
 Aesthetically pleasing/appropriate for location
 Ease/speed of construction Graphic: http://www.iaw.on.ca/~blkcreek/

Click here for some outstanding examples of t

he use of exposed timber framing systems!
 Limitations
 Natural Size limitations
 Because the timbers come from trees, sizes are naturally limited by the
trees available.
 The natural strength to resist loading of the timbers limits the span.
 Does not accommodate large open spaces
 The framing concept does not allow for large open spaces as the posts are
a necessary aspect of the frame. Beam spans range from 8’ to 32’.
 Wood is organic matter and is therefore subject to decomposition over
a period of time.
 Wood may absorb/lose water content causing warping and
deformation in the system over time.
 Wood is subject to infestations of destructive insects such as termites,
carpenter ants, etc.
Materials and Construction Issues
 Typical Strong Woods:
 Douglas Fir
 Larch
 Southern Pine  Connections:
 Oak  Metal Connectors
 Many types of wood & uses  Shear Plate Connections
 Spike Grid Connections
 Fabrication  Toothed-ring Joints
 On-Site Fabrication
 Bolts, screws, nails, etc.
 Allows for irregular shape
construction  Wood on Wood Connections
 Off-Site Fabrication  Mortice and Tenon
 Allows for high-speed construction  Lap Joint
as members only need to be pieced
 Spline
together
 Beneficial for modular installation
 Shear-Plate Connector

 Shear plates are

typical for wood-steel
connections.
 Pairs of sheer plates
can be used to form
wood-wood
connections.
http://www.tpub.com/content/engi
neering/14070/css/14070_27.htm
 Spike Grid Connector

 Spike Grid connectors

are embedded into the
wood members before
they are bolted
together to provide a
source of friction to
prevent shearing of the
bolts.
http://www.tpub.com/content/engineering/14070/css/14070_27.htm
 Toothed-ring Joints

 Toothed-ring Joints
are used similarly to
the spike grid
installation.

http://www.tpub.com/content/engineering/14070/css/14070_27.htm
 Numeric Parameters
 Nominal Depth of Beam vs. Span (Solid)
 Depth of Beam vs. Span (Laminated)
 Design Values: Bending, Tension, Shear,
Compression, and Modulus of Elasticity
 How much does it weigh?
Nominal Depth vs. Span
 This chart shows span
ranges based on the
nominal depth of the
wood beam selected.
 Nominal depths are
slightly larger than
actual depths.
 Note that with a 24”
beam depth maximum
span is only 32’.
 Depth vs. Span
Laminated Beams
 This chart shows span
ranges based on the depth
of the laminated wood
beam selected.
 Laminated beams can span
greater distances that their
solid wood counterparts.
This is in part because their
size is not restricted by
nature.
 Note that Span is in feet
and depth is in inches.
 Design Values - Allowable Loadings

 S-P-F Design Values (psi)

 Douglas Fir- Larch Design Values (psi)
 Hem-Fir (North) Design Values (psi)
 Northern Species Design Values (psi)
These tables will help you to decide what size and what
type of wood is necessary based on loading factors such
as bending, tension, shear, and compression.
Design loadings are given for specified types and grades
of timbers. Loadings are presented in pounds per square
inch.
 S-P-F Design Values (psi)
Design values are in pounds per square inch (psi)
Tension Shear Compression Compression
parallel parallel perpendicular parallel to Modulus of
Bending to grain to grain to grain grain Elsasticity
  Grade Size Fb Ft Fv Fc perp Fc E
2x4 1875 1050 1610
2x6 1625 910 1540
Select
2x8 1500 840 135* 425 1470 1500000
Structural
2x10 1375 770 1400
2x12 1250 700 1400
2x4 1310 675 1320
No. 1 2x6 1135 585 1265
S-P-F & 2x8 1050 540 135* 425 1205 1400000
No. 2 2x10 960 495 1150
2x12 875 450 1150
2x4 750 375 745
2x6 650 325 715
No. 3 2x8 600 300 135* 425 680 1200000
2x10 550 275 650
2x12 500 250 650
*New Shear Design Values
http://www.cwc.ca/products/lumber/visually_graded/us_values.php
 Douglas Fir- Larch
Design Values (psi)
Design values are in pounds per square inch (psi)
Tension Shear Compression Compression
parallel parallel perpendicular parallel to Modulus of
Bending to grain to grain to grain grain Elsasticity
  Grade Size Fb Ft Fv Fc perp Fc E
2x4 2025 1235 2185
2x6 1755 1070 2090
Select
2x8 1620 990 180* 625 1995 1900000
Structural
2x10 1485 905 1900
2x12 1350 825 1900
2x4 1275 750 1610
Douglas
No. 1 2x6 1105 650 1540
Fir-
& 2x8 1020 600 180* 625 1470 1600000
Larch
No. 2 2x10 935 550 1400
(North)
2x12 850 500 1400
2x4 710 450 945
2x6 615 390 905
No. 3 2x8 570 360 180* 625 865 1400000
2x10 520 330 825
2x12 475 300 825
*New Shear Design Values

http://www.cwc.ca/products/lumber/visually_graded/us_values.php
 Hem-Fir Design Values (psi)
Design values are in pounds per square inch (psi)
Tension Shear Compression Compression
parallel parallel perpendicular parallel to Modulus of
Bending to grain to grain to grain grain Elsasticity
  Grade Size Fb Ft Fv Fc perp Fc E
2x4 1950 1160 1955
2x6 1690 1005 1870
Select
2x8 1560 930 145* 370 1785 1700000
Structural
2x10 1430 850 1700
2x12 1300 775 1700
2x4 1500 860 1665
Hem- No. 1 2x6 1300 745 1595
Fir & 2x8 1200 690 145* 370 1520 1600000
(North) No. 2 2x10 1100 630 1450
2x12 1000 575 1450
2x4 860 485 975
2x6 745 420 935
No. 3 2x8 690 390 145* 370 890 1400000
2x10 630 355 850
2x12 575 325 850
*New Shear Design Values

http://www.cwc.ca/products/lumber/visually_graded/us_values.php
 Northern Species
Design Values (psi)
Design values are in pounds per square inch (psi)
Tension Shear Compression Compression
parallel parallel perpendicular parallel to Modulus of
Bending to grain to grain to grain grain Elsasticity
  Grade Size Fb Ft Fv Fc perp Fc E
2x4 1500 675 1365
2x6 1300 585 1210
Select
2x8 1200 540 110* 350 1155 1700000
Structural
2x10 1100 495 1100
2x12 1000 450 1100
2x4 900 410 975
No. 1 2x6 780 355 935
Northern
& 2x8 720 330 110* 350 890 1600000
Species
No. 2 2x10 660 300 850
2x12 600 275 850
2x4 525 225 575
2x6 455 195 550
No. 3 2x8 420 180 110* 350 525 1400000
2x10 385 165 500
2x12 350 150 500
*New Shear Design Values
http://www.cwc.ca/products/lumber/visually_graded/us_values.php
 Wood Densities for Design Loads

 One of the primary

Plywood 36 lb/ft3 5.7 kN/m3
components of the Dead
Load calculation is the
Douglas Fir 34 lb/ft3 5.3 kN/m3 weights of the structural
members. The densities
Southern Pine 37 lb/ft3 5.8 kN/m3 allow the engineer to
calculate the weight added
Spruce 29 lb/ft3 4.5 kN/m3
by the timber members.
 Alternatives to timber
construction
 Although not used as widely as
timber, concrete, and steel
construction materials,
lightweight and durable
materials are being used for the
more decorative structural
elements.
 These materials include
aluminum, structural foam,
plastics, and fiberglass.
 Typical uses and applications
 Commercial:
 Walkway Canopies
 Shade Structures
 Metal Roofing
 Residential:
 Lattice
 Pool Enclosures
 Sunrooms
 Carports
 Aluminum Structural Framing
 Aluminum framing has advantages in high
insulating value, diffuse-light transmitting
swimming pool enclosures. Typical ferro-
vitreous buildings utilize 2 3/4" structural
roof panel systems providing good insulating
values, energy performance, human comfort
and condensation control. The panels are
incorporated into an aluminum box beam
sub-structure resulting in an enclosure that is
designed to meet or exceed all local snow and
wind load requirements - from Canadian
snowstorms to Caribbean hurricanes.

 Aluminum Structural Framing comes factory

pre-finished, uses a hollow box-beam design
allowing easy wire and conduit concealment,
typically will use internal gussets, traditional
truss designs, and can be used in a variety of
roof styles.
 Aluminum/Fiberglass Columns
 The columns are designed for all types of decorative
and load bearing installations and are architecturally
correct in their proportions and projections. Fiber-
glass columns require very little maintenance, are www.colonialcolumns.com
durable and are ideal for indoor or outdoor
applications.
 All components are non-porous, waterproof, and
impervious to insect infestation. The fiberglass
columns are classified as NFPA Class A and UBC
Class 1, with a smoke density rating below 450
according to ASTM E84-01 testing criteria.
 Structural fiberglass columns are load bearing and
will typically have some sort of warranty. They can
vary in diameters from 5 to 36 inches with a load-
bearing capacity from 16,000 to 31,000 lbs., and can
be found in lengths ranging from 8 to 30 feet.
 Extruded Aluminum sections have high resistance
to torsional stress and compression. Aluminum’s
properties give the columns excellent load bearing
strength and durability. Since Aluminum is also
light weight it aids in the ease of installation.
Aluminum and Fiberglass also have a longer usable
lifetime than wooden members.
 Other specific uses
 Aluminum is used in architectural skylights
which are held using space frames due to its
lightweight and strong material properties.
 Aluminum is also used in prefabricated dome
structures typically used on religious or
institutional buildings.
 Alternative materials are also now used in www.roofdomes.com

pedestrian bridges and serve as low maintenance

crossways for traffic ranging from horses and
pedestrians to golf carts. These bridges are
environmentally friendly and meet state and
federal codes. These materials are used on a
smaller scale presently but show potential use
on large scale bridges in the future.
 These alternative construction materials are
typically used in the decorative elements of
buildings, but are being accepted as load bearing
materials due to their weight, strength, cost
effective manufacturing, and modular abilities.
 Roofs can utilize aluminum not only in framing
but can replace shingles and traditional roofing
products. And, many insurance companies in
select states are now offering discounts on
homes with metal roofs as an incentive.
 Other Potential Alternative
Building Materials
 Plastics:
 Bottles/containers
 Automotive
 Furniture, etc.
 Epoxy Resin members:
 Bicycle/automotive parts
 Other sports equipment
 Structural Foam:
 Pool walls
 Automotive parts
 Computer housings
 Furniture www.specialized.com

 Industrial Containers
 Advantages to Non-metal and
Concrete Structures
 Great design flexibility
 Modular, pre-fabricated, ease of manufacturing
 High strength to weight ratio
 Electrical/thermal insulating properties
 Potentially longer lifespan
 Cost effective
 Ease of installation
 Comparably Aesthetic to other traditional
materials
 Generalization:
 Wood framing is ideal for residential construction
and some commercial construction.
 One of the best aspects to wood framing is the
modular concept. This allows you to expand with
great ease.
 For further exploration, one could investigate the
combination of the systems presented by the class
in this project. More advanced structures may
need to use more than one structural concept act as
a system and perform the desired functions.
 References:
 Allen, E., Iano, J. The Architect’s Studio Companion - Rules of Thumb for
Preliminary Design. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 2002
 Ching, Francis. A Visual Dictionary of Architecture. New York, New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1997
 Fleming, J., Honour, H., & Pevsner, N. The Penguin Dictionary of
Architecture and Landscape Architecture. 5th ed. New York: Penguin. 1999
 http://www.slcc.edu/tech/techsp/arch/courses/ARCH1210/Photos/Fndtyp.jpg