Thermo-Fluid Engineering

Prof. XI Guannan ( 喜冠南 )

Mobile Phone ： 187-6285-0738

Email Address ： guannanxi@ntu.edu.cn
Office Address: Room 503, Library Building

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Contents of Thermo-Fluid Engineering
Chapter 1 Temperature and Heat
Chapter 2 Types of Heat Transfer
Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer

Chapter 4 Basic Concept of Thermodynamics

Chapter 5 First Law of Thermodynamics

Chapter 6 Calculation of Ideal Gas
Chapter 7 Thermal Process of Ideal Gas

Chapter 8 Second Law of Thermodynamics

Chapter 9 Flow of Gas

Chapter 10 Aerodynamic Cycle 2

 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-CONTENTS-

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Flow Boundary Layer over a Plain Plate-

Laminar flow boundary layer over a plain plate ( Rex < 50,000 )
Rex = v0 ・ x / ν
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Flow Boundary Layer over a Plain Plate-

Laminar and turbulent flow boundary layer over a plain plate with a peak edge

Laminar and turbulent flow boundary layer over a plain plate without a peak
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Flow Boundary Layer over a Plain Plate-
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Flow Boundary Layer in a tube-

Laminar flow boundary layer inside a tube / velocity v

 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Flow Boundary Layer in a tube-

Turbulent flow boundary layer inside a tube

Thickness t fbl of flow boundary layer and heat transfer coefficient h
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Flow Boundary Layer in a tube-

Laminar flow inside a tube

 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Flow Boundary Layer in a tube-
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Prandtl Number-
a = k / cpρ

Pr = ν / a
= cpµ/ k
= cpρν/k
 
Pr – Prandtl Number of the fluid, depending on material properties
and representing ratio of momentum and thermal diffusivities
a m2/s Temperature conductivity （温度传导率）
• : Specific heat of fluid (J/kg K)
• : Viscosity of fluid (Pa s)
• : Thermal conductivity of fluid (W/m K)
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Prandtl Number-
Prandtl number of typical materials

Name Prandtl number

Air and gas( 空气及气体） 0.7-0.8

Water ( 水） 7.0

Inert gas and hydrogen gas （惰 0.16-0.7

性气体、氢气

The oil （机油） 100 — 40,000

 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Heat transfer coefficient h at a plain plate -

Laminar and turbulent flow boundary layer over

a plain plate with a peak
Thickness tfbl of flow boundary layer and heat transfer coefficient h
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Nusselt Number (Nu)-

q = h ( Tf- TW) h=k / Ttbl

q = k( Tf- TW) / Ttbl NuL=h/k
h W/m2K heat transfer coefficient （换热系数）
q W/m2 heat flux = heat flow density( 热通量）
Tf °C temperature of the fluid
TW °C temperate of the wall
K W/mK thermal conductivity
NuL ---- Nusselt-number over a plain plate with length
L, Nusselt-number depending on material values, velocity and
length.
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Newton’s Law of Cooling for Convection-
  Rate of heat transfer by convection (for heating or
cooling) is given by Newton’s law of cooling as follows:
Q = h A (Ts - T∞)
Q: Energy transferred per unit time (W)
h: Convective heat transfer coefficient -- CHTC (W/m2
K)
A: Surface area available for heat transfer (m2)
T = Ts – T∞ : Temperature difference (K)
Ts: Surface temperature of solid object (K)
T∞: Free stream (or bulk fluid) temperature of fluid (K)

CHTC (h): Measure of rate of heat transfer by

convection; NOT a property; depends on fluid velocity,
surface characteristics (shape, size, smoothness), fluid
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Grashof (Gr) Number-

 
: Coefficient of volumetric thermal expansion ()
g: Acceleration due to gravity (= 9.81 m/s2)
f : Density of fluid (kg/m3)

Ts: Surface temperature of solid object (K)

T∞: Free stream temperature of fluid (K)
dc: Characteristic dimension of solid object (m) (Obtained
from tables based on shape & orientation of solid object)
f : Viscosity of surrounding fluid (Pa s)

Grashof number represents the ratio of buoyancy and

viscous forces
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Free Convection (Plate)-

•  Nu = hdc/kf = f (Gr, Pr)

• Nu = a (Gr Pr ; Re = Gr Pr
• For vertical plate (dc = plate height)
 a = 0.59, m = 0.250 (for 10 4 < Re < 10 9)
 a = 0.10, m = 0.333 (for 10 9< Re < 10 13)
• For inclined plate (for Re < 10 9)
 Use same eqn as vertical plate & replace ‘g’ by ‘g cos ’ in Gr
• For horizontal plate (dc = Area/Perimeter)
 Upper surface hot
• a = 0.54, m = 0.250 (for 10 4 < Re < 10 7)
• a = 0.15, m = 0.333 (for 10 7 < Re < 10 11)
 Lower surface hot
• a = 0.27, m = 0.250 (for 10 5 < Re < 10 11)
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Free Convection (Cylinder)-

• For vertical cylinder (dc = cylinder height)

– Similar to vertical plate if D ≥ 35L/(Gr) 0.25

• For horizontal cylinder (dc = cylinder diameter)

2
– For 10 < Re < 10   0.387 𝑁
1 /6

[
-5 12

]
ℜ
𝑁 u = 0.6 +
9/ 16 8 /27
0.559
Note: Re = Gr Pr
[ (
1+
Pr ) ]
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Free Convection (Sphere)-

  0.589 𝑁 1ℜ/ 4   for Re1011 & Pr ≥0.7

𝑁 u =2 +
9 / 16 4 /9
0.469
[ ( ) ]
1+
Pr
Re = Gr Pr

 For sphere, dc = D/2

Note 1: For all free convection situations, determine properties at

the film temperature {Tfilm = (Ts + T∞)/2} unless otherwise specified
Note 2: For all free convection scenarios, as the T between the fluid
and surface of solid increases, Gr increases. Thus, NNu and ‘h’
increase.
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Forced Convection-

•  Fluid is forced to move by an external force (pump/fan)

• Rate of heat transfer (Q & h) depends on
– Properties () of fluid
– Dimensions and surface characteristics (smoothness) of solid
• ‘h’ does NOT depend on
– Temperature difference between fluid and surface of solid
• ‘h’ strongly depends on Reynolds number
– When all system and product parameters are kept constant, it
is flow rate (a process parameter) that strongly affects ‘h’

Nu = hdc/kf = f (Re , Pr)

 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Forced Convection (in a Pipe)-
•  Nu = hdc/kf = f (Re, Pr)
• Three sub-categories of forced convection exist…..
• 1. Laminar flow (Re < 2100)
– A. Constant surface temperature of pipe
• Nu = 3.66 (for fully developed conditions)
– B. Constant surface heat flux
• Nu = 4.36 (for fully developed conditions)
– C. Other situations (for entry region & fully developed)
• Nu = 1.86 (Re x Pr x dc/L) 0.33 (b/ w) 0.14 dc: ID of pipe, L: Length of pipe

• 2. Transitional flow (2100 < NRe < 4000)

– Friction factor (f)
  Nu
• For smooth pipes:
  f

• For non-smooth pipes, use Moody chart (graph of: f, Re, /D)
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Forced Convection (in a Pipe)-

  Turbulent flow (Re > 4000) of a Newtonian fluid in a pipe

3.
Nu = 0.023 (Re) 0.8 (Pr) 0.33 (b/ w) 0.14
b: Viscosity of fluid based on bulk fluid temperature
w: Viscosity of fluid based on wall temperature
The term “(b / w)” is called the viscosity correction factor and
can be approximated to “1.0” in the absence of information on
wall temperature
Note: For flow in an annulus, use same eqn with dc = 4
(Acs/Wp) = dio – doi
dio: Inside diameter of outside pipe
doi: Outside diameter of inner pipe 43
Note: For all forced convection situations, use bulk temperature
of fluid to determine properties (unless otherwise specified)
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Forced Convection (over a Sphere)-

Nu = hdc/kf = f (Re, Pr) – similar to flow in a pipe

Nu = 2 + 0.6 (Re) 0.5 (Pr) 0.33

For 1 < Re < 70,000 and 0.6 < Pr < 400 44

Note 1: dc is the outside diameter of the sphere

Note 2: Determine all properties at the film temperature
{Tfilm = (Ts + T∞)/2}
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Thermal Resistances to Heat Transfer-

•  Conduction
– Slab: Q = kA (T/x) = T/[(x/kA)]
– Cylinder: Q = kAlm (T/r) = T/[(r/kAlm)]
– Driving force for heat transfer: T
– Thermal resistance to heat transfer: (x/kA) or (r/kAlm)

• Convection
• Q = hA (T) = T/[(/hA)]
– Driving force for heat transfer: T
– Thermal resistance to heat transfer: (/hA)

Units of thermal resistance to heat transfer: K/W

 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
 -Logarithmic Mean Temp Diff (Tlm )-
Double Tube Heat Exchanger

T
  is NOT constant across the length of tube
T1 = Tw(o) – Tp(i) , T2 = Tw(i) – Tp(o)
Tlm = (T1 – T2 ) / [ln (T1 / T2 )]
Note: Tlm lies between T1 and T2
Subscripts: ‘w’ for water; ‘p’ for product, ‘i’ for inlet, ‘o’ for outlet

Note:  Tlm comes into play when the temperature difference across the
two ends where heat transfer is taking place, is not the same
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient-

• OHTC (denoted by the symbol ‘U’) refers to a single quantity that

can be used to quantify the effect of all forms (conduction and
convection) of heat transfer taking place in a system

• It facilitates the use of one equation (instead of individual

equations for each conductive and convective heat transfer in the
system) to determine the total heat transfer taking place in the
system

– All thermal resistances in the system are added in order to

facilitate this process
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient-

OHTC (or U) in Different Scenarios

• Three conductive heat transfers
 1/(UA) = Δx1/(k1A) + Δ x2/(k2A) + Δ x3/(k 3A)
• Two convective heat transfers
 1/(UA) = 1/(h1A1) + 1/(h2A2)
• One conductive and one convective heat transfer
 1/(UA) = Δ x1/(k1A) + 1/(hA)
Note 1: 1/UA > 1/hA; Thus, U < h
Note 2: If there is no conductive resistance,

U = h U: Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m4 K)

“1/UA”: Overall thermal resistance (K/W)
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient-
k, h, U, Resistances, and Temperatures
• As thermal conductivity (k) increases, thermal resistance due to
conduction (Δ x/kA) decreases
– Thus, temperature difference between center and surface of object
decreases
• As convective heat transfer coefficient (h) increases, thermal resistance
due to convection (1/hA) decreases
– Thus, temperature difference between the fluid and surface of the solid
object decreases
• As overall heat transfer coefficient (U) increases, overall thermal
resistance (1/UA) decreases
– Thus, temperature difference between the two points across which heat
transfer is taking place, decreases Thermal conductivity: W/m K
Convective heat transfer coefficient: W/m2 K
Overall heat transfer coefficient: W/m2 K
Thermal resistance to heat transfer: K/W
Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer

RADIATION
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Basics of Radiation Heat Transfer-

Rate of heat transfer by radiation is given by Stefan Boltzmann

law as follows:
Q = σ A ε T4

Q: Energy transferred per unit time (W)

σ: Stefan-Boltzmann constant (= 5.669 x 10 -8 W/m 2 K 4) A:
Surface area of object (m 2)
ε: Emissivity of surface (ranges from 0 to 1.0)
T: Temperature (K)
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Basics of Radiation Heat Transfer-
Any material emits radiation through electromagnetic waves.
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Basics of Radiation Heat Transfer-

Any material emits and receives thermal radiation at atemperature

> 0 °K = -273.15 °C
The impinging radiation will be reflected, absorbed as follows:
ρ+ α+ τ= 1 ρ rate of reflection ( 反射率）
α rate of absorption （吸收率）
τ rate of passing >0 case gases, others = 0
εmission rate
ρ+ α= 1 τ= 0 in case of solid or liquid bodies
(thickness solids > 1 µm, liquid > 1 mm)
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Basics of Radiation Heat Transfer-

The material will be told black, white, grey, coloredor specular:

ρ = 1 white all impinging radiation will be reflected
α=1 black ε= 1 all impinging radiation will be absorbed
τ=1 all impinging radiation will pass through,
for example through a gas
ε< 1 grey α= ε same rate will be absorbed over the total
range of wave length
colored some special wave lengths will be preferred
 Chapter 3 Calculation of Heat Transfer
-Basics of Radiation Heat Transfer-