An Introduction To Research Proposal

The research proposal is a detailed plan of a study.

It is a document which shows researchers’ ideas in an
easily accessible way.
The intent of the written research proposal is to provide a
focused and scholarly presentation of a research problem
and plan.
Research proposal is a brief overview of your research
paper, giving the reader sufficient information about the
work you will do, about the way you will did and the value
of this work.
 The objective in writing a proposal is to describe:
• what you will do?
• why it should be done?
• how you will do it?
 Being clear about these things from the beginning will
help you complete your research in a timely fashion.
 A vague proposal can lead to a long, painful, and
often unsuccessful research writing exercise.
 written research proposal have the following
purpose :
Used as the plan
Used as communication
Used as contract
A well-thought and written proposal can be judged
according to three main criteria.
Is it adequate to answer the research question(s),
and achieve the study objective?
Is it feasible in the particular set-up for the study?
Does it provide enough detail that can allow
another investigator to do the study and arrive at
comparable results?
 Why Do You Need a Proposal?
 To convince others that

You understand the issue

Are familiar with what has been done in this area

Can identify what is missing

Can do the work and deliver a high quality

product
Components of a research proposal
The basic components of a research proposal are very
much similar in many fields.
However, how they are phrased and presented may
vary among disciplines.
The following components may be taken as the usual
ones.
1. Title - the research topic
The topic is the subject matter of a proposed study.

Shows the central idea to learn about or to explore.

Before considering what literature to use in a project

first identify a topic to study.
A title ought to be well studied, and to give a definite
and concise indication of what is to come.
 Describe the topic in a few words or in a short phrase.
 12- 15 words

 Titles should almost never contain abbreviations.

 The title page has no page number and it is not

counted in any page numbering.
 Good, sound research projects begin with
straightforward, uncomplicated thoughts, easy to read
and to understand
 A good title should have the following properties:
 The title needs to be very specific in nature.

 It needs to be very definite and clear. Never use words

which can crate ambiguity in the mind of the readers.
Try to use simple and powerful words with the help of
which you can clearly describe the total nature of your
project.
 It should tell the total nature of the subject

 The title needs to be attractive and interesting enough

to catch the attention of the readers.
 Criteria for selecting a research topic:
 Relevance: The topic you choose should be a priority
problem.
 Avoidance of duplication: Investigate whether the
topic has been researched.
 Feasibility: Consider the complexity of the problem
and the resources you will require to carry out the
study.
 Political acceptability: It is advisable to research a
topic that has the interest and support of the
authorities. This will facilitate the smooth conduct of
the research and increases the chance that the results
of the study will be implemented.
 Applicability of possible results and
recommendations
 Urgency of data needed: How urgently are the
results needed for making a decision? Which research
should be done first and which can be done late?
 Ethical acceptability: We should always consider the
possibility that we may inflict harm on others while
carrying out research. Therefore, it will be useful to
review the proposed study.
 Scalesfor rating research topics:
 Relevance

1. = Not relevant
2. = Relevant
3. = very relevant
 Avoidance of duplication

1. =Sufficient information already available

2. = Some information available but major issues
not covered
3. = No sound information available on which to
base problem-solving
 Feasibility

1. = Study not feasible considering available

resources
2. = Study feasible considering available resources

3. = Study very feasible considering available

resources
 Political acceptability

1. = Topic not acceptable

2. = Topic somewhat acceptable

3. = Topic fully acceptable

 Applicability

1. = No chance of recommendations being

implemented
2. = Some chance of recommendations being

implemented
3. = Good chance of recommendations being

implemented
 Urgency

1. = Information not urgently needed

2. = Information could be used but a delay of some

months would be acceptable

3. = Data very urgently needed for decision-

making
 Ethical acceptability
1. = Major ethical problems
2. = Minor ethical problems
3. = No ethical problems
 N.B. The above rating should be based on the existing
data and not on mere assumptions.
2. Introduction
It provides the background information for the readers.

Its purpose is to establish a framework for the

research, so that readers can understand how it is related
to other research.
 Bearing in your mind that the first impression is the
last impression, you need to present your introduction
as clearer as possible—leaving no ambiguities.

 If your introduction is attractive, your reader will

delve into your words till the last full stop is reached.
The introduction should provide:
A clear picture of the broad problem(s) or research
question(s) under investigation.
Some supportive background information.

Details of any related theories.

Reason(s) why the research is needed.

  In an introduction, the writer should:
  create
reader interest in the topic,
 lay the broad foundation for the problem that leads to
the study,
 place the study within the larger context of the
scholarly literature, and
 reach out to a specific audience.
 In the introduction you should define or identify the
general topic, issue or area of concern
It consists of five parts:
1. The research problem
2. Studies that have addressed the problem,
3. Deficiencies in the studies,
4. The importance of the study for an audience, &
5. The purpose statement.
The Research Problem in the Study
In the introduction start with one or more paragraphs that
convey the specific research problem or issues.

Clearly identify the research problem (i.e., dilemma,

issue) leading to the study. Researchers might ask
themselves. “Is there a specific sentence (or sentences) in
which I convey the research problem?”
 Indicatewhy the problem is important by citing
references that justify the need to study the problem.

 Make sure hat the research problem is framed in a

manner consistent with the approach to research in the
study (e.g., exploratory in qualitative, examining
relationships or predictors in quantitative, and either
approach in mixed methods inquiry).
Review Studies Addressing the Problem 
After establishing the research problem in the opening
paragraphs, next justify the importance of the research
problem by reviewing studies that have examined the
problem.

The purpose of reviewing studies that have addressed the

problem is to justify the importance of the study and to
create distinctions between past studies and a proposed
study.
 To review the literature related to the research
problem for an introduction to a proposal, consider
these ideas:
 Refer to the literature by summarizing groups of
studies, not individual studies. The intent should be to
establish broad areas of research at this juncture in the
study.
 To de-emphasize single studies, place the in-text
references at the end of a paragraph or at the end of a
summary point about several studies.
 Review research studies that used a quantitative,
qualitative, or mixed methods approach.
 Find recent literature to summarize (such as the
published in the last 10 years) unless an older study
exists that has been widely cited by others.
Deficiencies in Past Literature
After advancing the problem and reviewing the
literature about the problem, the researcher then
identifies deficiencies found in this literature.
Beyond mentioning the deficiencies, proposal writers
need to tell how their planned study will remedy or
address these deficiencies. For example, because past
studies have overlooked an important variable, a study
will include and analyze its effect.
 In summary, when identifying deficiencies in the past
literature, proposal developers might do the
following:
 Cite several deficiencies to make the case even
stronger for a study.
 Identify specifically the deficiencies of other studies
(e.g., methodological flaws, variables overlooked).
 Write about areas overlooked by past studies,
including topics, special statistical treatments,
significant implications, and so forth.
 Discus how a proposed study will remedy these
deficiencies and provide a unique contribution to the
scholarly literature.
 These deficiencies might be written using series of
short paragraphs that identify there or four
shortcomings of the past research or focus on one
major shortcoming.
Importance of a Study for an Audience 
All good writers have the audience in mind.      

The point is that authors need to identify the audiences

that will likely profit from a study of the research
problem.
The more audiences that can be mentioned, the greater
the importance of the study and the more it will be seen
by readers to have wide application.
 These audiences will differ from one project to
another, and they might include diverse audiences of
policy makers, organizations, other researchers, and
an individual in work organizations.
 Reaching out to an audience in an introduction might
be accomplished by briefly mentioning the audience
or detailing information for several audiences.
 Finally, good introductions to research studies end
with a statement of the purpose or intent of the study.
2. The research problem
What is a research problem? It is a question or matter
that involving doubts, uncertainty or difficulty that is
proposed for solution or discussion.
A problem usually implies that a controversy or
difference of opinion exists.
 is the problem or issue that leads to the need for a
study.
 is a question or issue to be examined.

“The problem statement describes the context for the

study and it also identifies the general analysis
approach”.
  “A problem might be defined as the issue that exists
in the literature, theory, or practice that leads to a need
for the study”
 Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need
which a researcher experiences in the context of either
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.
 Research problem must be feasible, clear, significant,
and ethical
 The research problem in a study begins to
become clear when the researcher asks:
 “what is the need for this study?” or
 “what problem influenced the need to undertake
this study?”,
 “Why does this research need to be conducted?” .
 If a researcher is unable to answer these
questions clearly then the statement of the
problem is likely to be ambiguous
 Key aspects of a research problem:
 A question

 Something which is not fully understood

 Something that has been deliberately chosen as

the subject of inquiry

 What is not a research question?

 A question that has an obvious or previously

confirmed answer
 A statement of fact by the researcher – the

researcher has an equivocal answer, view or

opinion
 The statement of the problem:
 Is often followed by a more detailed discussion of the
problem area.
 Explains its background more fully.

 Summarizes its implications in terms of professional

significance or theory development.
 Provides the reader with a more comprehensive
understanding of what has been done or learned so far
by other researchers.
 Discusses briefly the literature relevant to the problem.
sources of research problems:
You own experience or the experience of others may be a
source of problem supply. 
Scientific literature;  you may read about certain findings
and notice that a certain field was not covered.  This could
lead to a research problem. 
Theories could be another source. Shortcomings in
theories could be researched.
It might spring from an experience researchers have had
in their personal lives or workplaces.
It may come from an extensive debate that has appeared
in the literature.
It might develop from policy debates in government or
among top executives.
 Why is it important to state and define the
problem well?
 Because a clear statement of the problem:

 Is the foundation for the further development of the

research proposal (research objectives, methodology,
work plan, etc);
 Makes it easier to find information and reports of
similar studies from which your own study design can
benefit;
 Enables the researcher to systematically point out why
the proposed research on the problem should be
undertaken and what you hope to achieve with the
study results.
 Information included in the statement of a
problem
 A brief description of factors needs to be
investigated
 A more detailed description of the nature of the
problem
basic description of the research problem

the discrepancy between what is and what should

be
its size, distribution, and severity
 An analysis of the major factors that may influence the
problem and a convincing argument that available
knowledge is insufficient to answer a certain question
and to update the previous knowledge.
 A brief description of any solutions that have been tried
in the past, how well they have worked, and why further
research is needed.
 A description of the type of information expected to
result from the project and how this information will be
used to help solve the problem
 If necessary, a short list of definitions of crucial
concepts used in the statement of the problem.
 Technique involved in defining a problem:
 Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a
crucial part of a research study and must in no case be
accomplished hurriedly.
 The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking
of the following steps generally one after the other:
i. statement of the problem in a general way;
ii. understanding the nature of the problem;
iii. surveying the available literature
iv. developing the ideas through discussions; and
v. rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
i. Statement of the problem in a general way:
ii. First of all the problem should be stated in a broad
general way, keeping in view either some practical
concern or some scientific or intellectual interest.
iii. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse
himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning
which he wishes to pose a problem.
iv. Then the researcher can himself state the problem or
he can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject
expert in accomplishing this task.
 Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms,
and it is then up to the researcher to narrow it down and
phrase the problem in operational terms.
 In case there is some directive from an organizational
authority, the problem then can be stated accordingly.
 The problem stated in a broad general way may contain
various ambiguities which must be resolved by cool
thinking and rethinking over the problem.
 At the same time the feasibility of a particular solution
has to be considered and the same should be kept in view
while stating the problem.
ii. Understanding the nature of the problem:
 The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin
and nature clearly.
 The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with
those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem
originally came about and with what objectives in view.
 If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should
consider once again all those points that induced him to make a
general statement concerning the problem.
 For a better understanding of the nature of the problem
involved, he can enter into discussion with those who have a
good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other
problems. The researcher should also keep in view the
environment within which the problem is to be studied and
understood.
iii. Surveying the available literature:
 All available literature concerning the problem at hand must
necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of
the research problem is given.
 This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with
relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all
other relevant literature.
 He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research
already undertaken on related problems.
 This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any,
are available for operational purposes. “Knowing what data
are available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well
as the technique that might be used.”
 This would also help a researcher to know if there are certain
gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories applicable
to the problem under study are inconsistent with each other, or
whether the findings of the different studies do not follow a
pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on.
 All this will enable a researcher to take new strides in the field
for furtherance of knowledge i.e., he can move up starting from
the existing premise.
 Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the type
of difficulties that may be encountered in the present study as
also the possible analytical shortcomings.
 At times such studies may also suggest useful and even new
lines of approach to the present problem.
iv. Developing the ideas through discussions:
v. Discussion concerning a problem often produces
useful information.
vi. Various new ideas can be developed through such an
exercise.
vii. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with
his colleagues and others who have enough
experience in the same area or in working on similar
problems.
viii. This is quite often known as an experience survey.
 People with rich experience are in a position to
enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his
proposed study and their advice and comments are
usually invaluable to the researcher.
 They help him sharpen his focus of attention on
specific aspects within the field.
 Discussions with such persons should not only be
confined to the formulation of the specific problem at
hand, but should also be concerned with the general
approach to the given problem, techniques that might
be used, possible solutions, etc.
v. Rephrasing the research problem:
 Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research
problem into a working proposition.
 Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood,
the environment (within which the problem has got to be
studied) has been defined, discussions over the problem have
taken place and the available literature has been surveyed
and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or
operational terms is not a difficult task.
 Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem
in as specific terms as possible so that it may become
operationally viable and may help in the development of
working hypotheses.
 In addition to what has been stated above, the following points
must also be observed while defining a research problem:
a. Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used
in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
b. Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research
problem should be clearly stated.
c. A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e.,
the criteria for the selection of the problem) should be provided.
d. The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available
must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
e. The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the
problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a
research problem.
 Considerations in selecting a research problem:
 These help to ensure that your study will remain
manageable and that you will remain motivated.
 Interest: a research endeavor is usually time consuming,
and involves hard work and possibly unforeseen
problems. One should select topic of great interest to
sustain the required motivation.
 Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic
that you can manage within the time and resources at
your disposal. Narrow the topic down to something
manageable, specific and clear.
3. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear
about the indicators and measurement of concepts (if used) in
your study.
4. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have adequate level
of expertise for the task you are proposing since you need to
do the work yourself.
5. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body
of knowledge, bridges current gaps and is useful in policy
formulation. This will help you to sustain interest in the
study.
6. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure
that data are available.
7. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study
population and how ethical problems can be overcome should
be thoroughly examined at the problem formulating stage.
 Ingeneral:
 A problem statement is the description of an issue
currently existing and that needs to be addressed.
 It provides the context for the research study and
generates the questions which the research aims to
answer.
 A good problem statement is just one sentence (with
several paragraphs of elaboration).
 The problem statement is more specific than a topic
and it limits the scope of the research problem.
 The actual statement may be in a declarative or in
question form.
 A statement of research problem communicates:
 The focus & importance of the problem: i.e it introduces the
reader to the importance of the problem. The reader is oriented
to the significance of the study and the research questions or
hypotheses to follow;
 The context & scope: i.e, it places the problem in a context

 The framework for reporting the results: i.e, it provides the

framework for reporting the results. Indicate what is probably
necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings
will present this information. You could relate the findings to
prior research, or it could be presented as a comparison, or you
could draw implications from the findings to generalize to
other related conditions
 Defining Questions and Hypotheses     
 Hypotheses and questions are linked to the speculative
proposition of the problem statement, can be inferred
from the overall conceptual framework of a study, and
are of critical importance to data analysis and
interpretation
 They represent a further narrowing of the objectives,
and a further step toward Operationalizing what is to
be done (a preview of the procedures).
 Research questions
 The research question is one of the first methodological
steps the investigator has to take when undertaking a
research. The research question must be accurately and
clearly defined.
 Choosing a research question is the central element of
both quantitative and qualitative research and in some
cases it may precede construction of the conceptual
framework of study. In all cases, it makes the theoretical
assumptions in the framework more explicit, most of all it
indicates what the researcher wants to know most and
first.
 Research question should be feasible (can be
investigated with available resources)
 Research question should be clear (specifically define
terms used…operational needed, but
give both)
 Research question should be significant (worth
investigating; how does it contribute to
field and who can use info)
 Hypothesis:

 Hypothesis may be precisely defined as a tentative

proposition suggested as a solution to a problem or as
an explanation of some phenomena. It is also defined
as a formal statement that presents the expected
relationship between an independent and dependent
variable.
 The main purposes and importance of hypothesis in a
scientific research are:
 It provides a tentative explanation of phenomena
and facilitates the extension of knowledge in the
area
 It provides the investigator with a relational
statement that is directly testable in a research study
 It provides a frame work for reporting conclusions
of the study
 It could be considered as the working instrument of
theory. Hypothesis can be deducted from theory
and also from other hypothesis
 It could be tested and shown to be probably
supported or not supported, apart from man’s own
values and opinions.
 The usable hypothesis:
 Must have explanatory power
 Must state the expected relationship between
variables
 Must be testable
 Should be consistent with the existing body of
knowledge
 Should be stated as simply and concisely as
possible
 A hypothesis could be null or alternate hypothesis.
 Null Hypothesis is a statement that there is no actual
relationship between variables. (Ho or HN)
 A null hypothesis may read, “There is no difference
between………..”
 Ho states the opposition of what the experimenter would expect
or predict
 The final conclusion of the investigator will either retain a null
hypothesis or reject a null hypothesis in favor of an alternate
hypothesis
 Not rejecting Ho doesn’t really mean that Ho is true. There
might not be enough evidence against Ho
 Example: “There is no statistically significant difference in the
anxiety level of children of high IQ and those of low IQ”
 Alternate Hypothesis is a statement that suggests a
potential outcome that the researcher may expect. (H1
or HA)
 H1 may come from prior literature or studies
 It is established when a null hypothesis is rejected
 Often an alternate hypothesis is the desired

conclusion of the investigator

 It is of two types directional and non-directional
 Directional alternate hypothesis is a type of
alternate hypothesis that specifies the direction of
expected findings
 Example: “Children with high IQ will exhibit more
anxiety than children with low IQ”
 Non-directional alternate hypothesis is a type of
alternate hypothesis in which no definite direction of
the expected findings is specified
 Example: There is a statistically significant difference
in the anxiety level of children of high IQ and those of
low IQ”.
3. Research Objectives
 The objectives of a research project summaries what
is to be achieved by the study.
 Objectives should be closely related to the statement
of the problem.
 Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your
study.
 They inform a reader what you want to attain through
the study.
 It is extremely important to word them clearly and
specifically.
 Research objectives are set as general and specific
objectives. The general objective of a study states
what researchers expect to achieve by the study in
general terms.
 The main objective is an overall statement of the
thrust of your study. It is also a statement of the main
associations and relationships that you seek to
discover or establish.
 It is possible (and advisable) to break down a general
objective into smaller, logically connected parts.
These are normally referred to as specific objectives.
 Specific objectives should systematically address the
various aspects of the problem and the key factors that
are assumed to influence or cause the problem. They
should specify what you will do in your study, where
and for what purpose.
 The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic

that you want to investigate within the main framework

of your study.
 They should be numerically listed.
 Wording should clearly, completely and specifically
Communicate to your readers your intention.
 Each objective should contain only one aspect of the
Study.
 We have to make sure that our objectives:
 Cover the different aspects of the problem and its
contributing factors in a coherent way and in a
logical sequence
 Are clearly expressed in measurable terms
 Are realistic considering local conditions
 Meet the purpose of the study
 Use action verbs that are specific enough to be
measured
 Examples of action verbs are: to determine, to
compare, to verify, to calculate, to describe, and to
establish.
 Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such as: to
appreciate, to understand, to believe or to study.
 Keep in mind that when the project is evaluated, the
results will be compared to the objectives. If the
objectives have not been spelled out clearly, the
project cannot be evaluated.
 Why should research objectives be developed?
 The formulation of objectives will help you to:

 Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials);

 Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly

necessary for understanding and solving the problem
you have identified; and
 Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases.
 An objective is a clear statement of something that
needs to be accomplished over a period of time.
SMART objectives are:
 Specific – states exactly what you need to achieve

 Measurable – includes a quality or quantity measure

 Agreed – between you and your Reviewer

 Realistic – can be challenging but must be achievable

 Time bound – with a clear end date or timescale

 4. Review of Related Literature
What is a Review of Related Literature?

One of the most important early steps in a research

project is the conducting of the literature review.
This is also one of the most humbling experiences
you're likely to have. Why?
Because you're likely to find out that just about any
worthwhile idea you will have been thought of before,
at least to some degree.
 A literature review is a body of text that aims to review
the critical points of current knowledge including
substantive findings as well as theoretical and
methodological contributions to a particular topic.
 The review of literature thus becomes a link between the
research proposed and the studies already done.
 It tells the reader about aspects that have been already
established or concluded by other authors, and also gives
a chance to the reader to appreciate the evidence that has
already been collected by previous research, and thus
projects the current research work in the proper
perspective.
 Frequently students complain that they couldn't find
anything in the literature that was related to their
topic. And virtually every time they have said that, it
was easy to show them that was only true because
they only looked for articles that were exactly the
same as their research topic.
 A literature review is designed to identify related
research, to set the current research project within
a conceptual and theoretical context. When looked
at that way, almost no topic is so new or unique that
you can't locate relevant and informative related
research.
 Why is it important to review already available information?
 It ensures you that you are not “reinventing the wheel”. i.e, it
prevents you from duplicating work that has been done before.
 It helps you to find out what others have learned and reported on
the problem you want to study. This may assist you in refining
your statement of the problem and also in giving credits to those
who have laid the groundwork for your research.
 It demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and
research issues related to your research question.
 It helps you to become more familiar with the various research
approaches that might be used in your study.
 It provides you with convincing arguments for why your
particular research project is needed.
 What are the possible sources of information?
  Individuals, groups, and organizations;

 Published information (books, articles, indexes,

abstract journals); and

 Unpublished information (other research
proposals in related fields, reports, records,
computer data bases)
 Characteristics of related literatures
 The related materials should be as recent as
possible. It is important that reviewed materials must
be new or fresh because of the rapid change in
technology, social, economic, scientific and human
lifestyle.
 Reviewed materials should be objective and
unbiased. Avoid reviewed materials that is extremely
political or religious or one sided.
 Surveyed materials should be related to the
study. Relevant or similar materials to the research
must be reviewed.
 The reviewed materials should be based upon
genuinely original and true facts or data must be
valid and reliable. Avoid materials where fictitious
data are supplied just to complete the research
report because it is hard to prove.
 Reviewed materials should not be too few and too
many. The researcher should provide sufficient
enough reviewed materials to give insight into
the research problem or to indicate the nature of the
present studies. However, the number may also
depend upon the availability of related materials.
 Major problems that students face when
conducting review of related literatures:
Lacking organization and structure

Lacking focus, unity and coherence

Being repetitive and verbose/wordy

Failing to cite influential papers

Failing to keep up with recent developments

Failing to critically evaluate cited papers

Citing irrelevant or trivial references

Depending too much on secondary sources

 A well-structured literature review is characterized by a logical
flow of ideas; current and relevant references with consistent,
appropriate referencing style; proper use of terminology; and an
unbiased and comprehensive view of the previous research on
the topic.
 Literature review is not a simple compilation of every work
written about a topic.
 Mention the problem addressed

 State the central purpose or focus of the study

 Briefly state information about (methodology) the sample,

population or subjects;
 Review key results that relate to the proposed study
 The literature review accomplishes several purposes:
• It shares with the reader the results of other studies
that are closely related to the one being undertaken;
• It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in
the literature;
• It provides a framework for establishing the
importance of the study as well as a benchmark for
comparing the results with other findings;
 Why do a literature review?
 There are good reasons for spending time and effort on
a review of the literature before embarking on a
research project.  These reasons include:
 to identify gaps in the literature

 to avoid reinventing the wheel (at the very least this will
save time and it can stop you from making the same
mistakes as others)
 to carry on from where others have already reached
(reviewing the field allows you to build on the platform
of existing knowledge and ideas)
 to increase your breadth of knowledge of your subject
area
 to identify other people working in the same fields
 to identify seminal works in your area

 to provide the intellectual context for your own work,

enabling you to position your project relative to other
work
 to identify opposing views

 to put your work into perspective

 to demonstrate that you can access previous work in an

area
 to identify information and ideas that may be relevant
to your project
 to identify methods that could be relevant to your
project
 In general, literature review:
 Shares the results of other studies

 Relates the study to the larger dialogue in the

literature
 Provides a framework for establishing the importance
of the study
 Provides a benchmark for comparing the results to
other findings
 How to Write a Literature Review?
 The first step towards writing a literature review would be to
select some already published literature works on a particular
subject.
 Once you do this, the next step would be to collect all the
research material that has already been done by experts of the
subject.
 You need not stick only to books for collecting information,
rather you can also make use of the facilities offered by the
Internet, where you can find all the information you want.
 The only thing you have to keep in mind is that all information
that you have gathered are relevant as well as reliable.
 Before writing the literature review, read every piece of
literature related to your subject purposely. That is, you need
to summarize the work you read but you must also decide
which ideas or information are important to your research (so
you can emphasize them), and which are less important and
can be covered briefly or left out of your review.
 You should also look for the major concepts, conclusions,
theories, arguments etc. that underlie the work, and look for
similarities and differences with closely related work. This is
difficult when you first start reading, but should become easier
the more you read in your area.
 Once you feel that you have understood it very well, it
is time to put your analysis on paper but when you
write it, write it with purpose.
 Your aim should be to evaluate and show relationships
between the work already done (Is Researcher Y's
theory more convincing than Researcher X's? Did
Researcher X build on the work of Researcher Y?)
and between this work and your own.
 In order to do this effectively you should carefully
plan how you are going to organize your work.
 A lot of people like to organize their work
chronologically (using time as their organizing
system). Unless developments over time are crucial to
explain the context of your research problem, using a
chronological system will not be an effective way to
organize your work.
 Some people choose to organize their work
alphabetically by author name: this system will not
allow you to show the relationships between the work
of different researchers and your work, and should be
avoided!
 Literature Review Format
 Before you start writing your literature review, it would be
really beneficial if you create a literature review outline, where
you have to chart out the way in which you would organize all
the information that you have accumulated. After doing this,
you can set out with your literature review. The literature
review format that you have to follow is similar to that of the
other essays.
 Writing a literature review is a way of developing critical
thinking skills. Knowing the literature review format well
would definitely aid you in arranging the acquired information
in an organized manner.
 How to organize a literature review:
 LR has to be organized in to introduction, body, and conclusion
parts.
 Writing the Introduction: In the introduction, you should:

 Define or identify the general topic, issue, or area of concern,

thus providing an appropriate context for reviewing the
literature and tell the reader about the structure of the section;
 Or you may tell the reader about the sections included in LR.
This passage is a statement about the organization of the
section.
 Point out overall trends in what has been published about the
topic; or conflicts in theory, methodology, evidence, and
conclusions; or gaps in research and scholarship; or a single
problem or new perspective of immediate interest.
 Establish the writer's reason (point of view) for reviewing the
literature; explain the criteria to be used in analyzing and
comparing literature and the organization of the review
(sequence); and, when necessary, state why certain literature is
or is not included (scope).
 Writing the Body:
 this is where you show the review;

 There are some ways in which you could organize

your discussion:
chronologically: for example, if writers' views
have tended to change over time.
thematically: take particular themes in the
literature;
methodologically: the focus is on the methods,
 In the body, you should:
 Group research studies and other types of literature (reviews,
theoretical articles, case studies, etc.) according to common
denominators such as qualitative versus quantitative approaches,
conclusions of authors, specific purpose or objective, chronology,
etc.
 Summarize individual studies or articles with as much or as little
detail as each merits according to its comparative importance in
the literature, remembering that space (length) denotes
significance.
 Provide the reader with strong "umbrella" sentences at beginnings
of paragraphs, "signposts" throughout, and brief "so what"
summary sentences at intermediate points in the review to aid in
understanding comparisons and analyses.
 Writing the Conclusion:
 End the literature review with a summary of the
major themes and pointing out the major flaws in
methodology, gaps in the research, contradictions, and
areas for further study and suggest how your proposed
study will contribute to the literature.
 In the conclusion, you should:
 Summarize major contributions of significant studies and
articles to the body of knowledge under review,
maintaining the focus established in the introduction.
 Evaluate the current "state of the art" for the body of
knowledge reviewed, pointing out major methodological
flaws or gaps in research, inconsistencies in theory and
findings, and areas or issues pertinent to future study.
 Conclude by providing some insight into the relationship
between the central topic of the literature review and a
larger area of study such as a discipline, a scientific
endeavor, or a profession.
 Priority for selecting literature material
 What types of literature might be reviewed and in
what priority?
 Consider the following:

 1. may start with broad syntheses of the literature,

such as overviews found in encyclopaedias.
 2. Next, turn to journal articles in respected,
journals, especially those that report research studies.
 Start with the most recent issues of the journals and
look for studies about your topic and then work back
in time.
 Follow up on references at the end of the articles for
more sources to examine.
 3. books related to the topic.
 4. recent conference papers.
 5. Dissertations and
 6. others, the web also provides helpful materials for
a literature review.
 In general in developing LR, read critically with
particular reference to the following aspects:
 Note whether the knowledge relevant to your
theoretical framework is confirmed beyond doubt.
 Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these
and their basis, the methodologies adopted and the
criticisms of them.
 Examine to what extent the findings can be
generalized to other situations.
 Start with general information, gradually narrowing
down to the specific.
 Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known-the gaps
that exist in the body of knowledge.
 5. Methodology/Research Design
 Research design is the conceptual structure within
which research would be conducted.
 The function of research design is to provide for the
collection of relevant information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money.
 This and the background sections will be the longest
sections of the proposal. It will detail precisely how
you intend to go about achieving your research
objectives. It will also justify your choice of method in
the light of those objectives. These two aims may be
met by dividing your method section into two parts:
research design and data collection.
 Inthe part on research design you will explain where
you intend to carry out the research. If your earlier
coverage has pointed out that your research is a
single-organisation issue, then this will be self-
evident. However, if your research topic is more
generic you will wish to explain, for example, which
sector(s) of the economy you have chosen to research
and why you chose these sectors. You will also need
to explain the identity of your research population
(for example, managers or trade union officials) and
why you chose this population.
 Thissection should also include an explanation of the
general way in which you intend to carry out the
research. Will it be based, for example, on a
questionnaire, interviews, examination of secondary
data or use a combination of data collection
techniques? Here again it is essential to explain why
you have chosen your approach. Your explanation
should be based on the most effective way of meeting
your research objectives.
 The research design section gives an overall view of the
method chosen and the reason for that choice. The data
collection section goes into much more detail about
how specifically the data are to be collected. For
example, if you are using a survey strategy you should
specify your population and sample size. You should
also clarify how the survey instrument such as a
questionnaire will be distributed and how the data will
be analysed. If you are using interviews you should
explain how many interviews will be conducted, their
intended duration, whether they will be audio-recorded,
and how they will be analysed.
 In short, you should demonstrate to your reader that
you have thought carefully about all the issues
regarding your method and their relationship to your
research objectives. However, it is normally not
necessary in the proposal to include precise detail of
the method you will employ, for example the content
of an observation schedule or questionnaire
questions.
 You will also need to include a statement about how
you are going to adhere to any ethical guidelines.
This is particularly important in some research
settings, such as those involving medical patients or
children.
 The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular
research problem, involves the consideration of the following :
 Summary of the research objectives and research questions
 Types of the research design
 Research design selected and the rationale behind its selection.
 Source of information: primary and secondary sources
 Method of Data Collection to be adopted and the rationale for
selecting some specific method.
 Sample Design and the rationale for selecting specific
sampling techniques
 Data Analysis chosen and the rationale for selecting that
specific analysis tools.
 6.Limitations and Delimitations
 The limitations and delimitations sections of your
research proposal describe situations and
circumstances that may affect or restrict your methods
and analysis of research data.
 Limitations are influences that the researcher cannot
control.   They are the shortcomings, conditions or
influences that cannot be controlled by the researcher
that place restrictions on your methodology and
conclusions. Any limitations that might influence the
results should be mentioned. Or we can say that,…
 limitations literally mean kind of restraint or obstacles
that the study might be gone through during the period. 
In most of the research, limitations are often imposed by
time and budget constraints, both time and budget are
the most commonly retraining factors that will give its
significant impacts on the study. If the limitation is not
clearly defined and tackled carefully, the study may end
up being invalid.
 The researcher should precisely list the limitations of the
study and describe the extent to which he/she believe the
limitations degrade the quality of the research. This will
help the researcher and the audience understands the
actual situation that the study encounters.
A limitation identifies potential weaknesses of the study.
Think about your analysis, the nature of self-report, your
instruments, the sample. Think about threats to internal
validity that may have been impossible to avoid or
minimize—explain.
 When considering what limitations there might be in your
investigation, be thorough.  Consider all of the following:
your analysis.

the nature of self-reporting.

the instruments you utilized.

the sample. 

time constraints. 
A delimitation addresses how a study will be narrowed
in scope, that is, how it is bounded.
 This is the place to explain the things that you are not
doing and why you have chosen not to do them—the
literature you will not review (and why not), the
population you are not studying (and why not), the
methodological procedures you will not use (and why
you will not use them).
 Limit your delimitations to the things that a reader
might reasonably expect you to do but that you, for
clearly explained reasons, have decided not to do.
 Delimitations are choices made by the researcher
which should be mentioned. They describe the
boundaries that you have set for the study. This is the
place to explain:
the things that you are not doing (and why you
have chosen not to do them).
the literature you will not review (and why not).
the population you are not studying (and why not).
the methodological procedures you will not use
(and why you will not use them).
 Limit your delimitations to the things that a reader might
reasonably expect you to do but that you, for clearly explained
reasons, have decided not to do. 
 The questions to consider in the research scope/delimitation
should be:
  Does the research cover a particular time period?
 Does the study cover a specific geographical area?
 If the study involves people, what age group, gender and place
of origin are to be included?
 Are all dates of publication to be included?
 Is the research going to cover publications from other
countries?
 Will the research include other languages and scripts?
 Are all perspectives to be considered? For example,
philosophical, political, psychological, etc.
 From the above discussion, we can conclude that the
differences between limitation and scope of the research
are:
1. The research scope/delimitation is the specifics that the
researcher want to cover in his/her study while the
research limitations is the constraint and obstacle that
the research expects to encounter during the study; and
2. The research limitation is beyond the researcher’s
control since it involves external factors which outside
researcher’s authority while the research scope is under
researcher’s control and manageable by him/her. The
researcher will determine what scope to be cover and
what scope to be left.
 7. Significance of the Study
 Significance of the Study means the importance of
your research. 
 The significance of the study brings out the value of
the study; the relevance of the results; for whom the
results will be relevant; what is already known about
your research problem; what has not been adequately
answered; how will your research add to knowledge/
practice/ policy; how will it be useful for policy
makers.
 Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend
existing knowledge in the area under investigation. Note
that such refinements, revisions, or extensions may have
either substantive, theoretical, or methodological
significance.
 This can be a difficult section to write. Think about
implications—how results of the study may affect
scholarly research, theory, practice, educational
interventions, curricula, counseling, policy.
 Most studies have two potential audiences: practitioners
and professional peers. Statements relating the research
to both groups are in order.
 
 The main reasons why a researcher needs to indicate the
significance of his/her study can be summarized as follow:
 It helps the researcher stay on the right track: Significance of the
research/study helps the researcher goes on the right track in pursuing
his/her research.
 It prevents the research/study from losing its main objective: It helps
the researcher by preventing the research gone out of its original topic
and problem statement.
 It can convince the target group the importance of the study: Ability to
justify the need and effect of the research/study to the targeted
audiences. Explain to the target group the what are the effect to the
particular situation if the study never been conducted
 It increases credibility and reliability of that particular research/study:
Justified significance of the research/study will make the
research/study more credible and reliable.
 When thinking about the significance of your study, ask
yourself the following questions.
 What will results mean to the theoretical framework that

framed the study?

 What suggestions for subsequent research arise from the

findings?
 Will results influence programs, methods, and/or
interventions?
 Will results contribute to the solution of problems?

 Will results influence policy decisions?

 What will be improved or changed as a result of the

proposed research?
 How will results of the study be implemented, and what

innovations will come about?

 8 Definition of Terms
 It is important to include definition of terms in your project/thesis
or dissertation in order to understand the key terms being used in
the study. 
 The Definition of Terms applies to those words or group of words
that need to be define for clarity. These terms should be clearly
defined according how they are used in the study in order to make
easy understanding of the problem and avoid ambiguous meaning
to terms which can be otherwise interpreted in different ways. You
may search in the Dictionary those terms that need to be defined.
You may also give an operational definition of such
terms. Operational definition applies to terms on how these words
were used in your research
 Terms defined should be arranged in alphabetical order and
acronyms should always spell out fully, most specially, if it is used
for the first time and not commonly known.
 9. Work/time Plan/budget
A work plan is a schedule, chart or graph that
summarizes the different components of a research
project and how they will be implemented in a coherent
way within a specific timespan.
It may include:

The tasks to be performed;

When and where the tasks will be performed; and

Who will perform the tasks and the time each

person will spend on them.

 Work plan could be presented in different forms, such
as work schedule and GANTT chart, but we will
demonstrate the GANTT chart here.
 A GANTT chart is a planning tool that depicts
graphically the order in which various tasks must be
completed and the duration of each activity. The length
of each task is shown by a bar that extends over the
number of days, weeks or months the task is expected
to take.
 How can a work plan be used?
 A work plan can serve as:
 A tool for planning the details of the project activities and
drafting a budget.
 A visual outline or illustration of the sequence of project
operations. It can facilitate presentations and negotiations
concerning the project with government authorities and other
funding agencies.
 A management tool for the Team Leader and members of the
research team, showing what tasks and activities are planned,
their timing, and when various staff members will be involved
in various tasks.
 A tool for monitoring and evaluation, when the current status of
the project is compared to what had been foreseen in the work
plan. Look in to the time budget example:
 Budget plan
 Why do we need to design a budget?

 A detailed budget will help you to identify which

resources are already locally available and which
additional resources may be required.
 The process of budget design will encourage you to
consider aspects of the work plan you have not thought
about before and will serve as a useful reminder of
activities planned, as your research gets underway.
 How should a budget be prepared?
 It is necessary to use the work plan as a starting point.
Specify, for each activity in the work plan, what
resources are required. Determine for each resource
needed the unit cost and the total cost.
 The budget for the fieldwork component of the work
plan will include funds for personnel, transport and
supplies.
 Note that UNIT COST (e.g., per diem or cost of petrol
per km), the MULTIPLYING FACTOR (number of
days), and TOTAL COST are required for all budget
categories.
 Budget justification
 It is not sufficient to present a budget without
explanation. The budget justification follows the
budget as an explanatory note justifying briefly, in the
context of the proposal, why the various items in the
budget are required. Make sure you give clear
explanations concerning why items that may seem
questionable or that are particularly costly are needed
and discuss how complicated expenses have been
calculated. If a strong budget justification has been
prepared, it is less likely that essential items will be cut
during proposal review.
Look in to the cost budget example:
Project work:
Select any three topics preferably in area of management
and prepare a research proposal after you will get approval
(30%) .
Send your three selected topics via email for approval:

yirgishing1997@gmail.com