Thermodynamics

ENG-214
Chapter 2 – Equations of State
To Review
• State of a system defined by state variables (P, T, v, etc.)
• Want to study what happened when we move from one state to another
• Can look up certain data (Psat, Tsat, u, h, s, in tables)
• Note that tables depend on reference state so BE CAREFUL
Don’t mix/max sources for data.
(e.g. don’t take hf from one table and hg from another)
• Customary to plot either P or T on the Y axis and v, u, h or s on the X axis
Equations of State – Relate T, P and v
Ideal Gas Law
Modified Ideal Gas Law (compressibility, z) - Eq. 2-18, page 90
Real Gas Law (Van der Waals Equation) - Eq. 2-22, page 94
Beattie-Bridgeman - Eq. 2-24, page 95
Benedict-Webb-Reubem- Eq. 26, page 95
Others you may come across:
Strodbridge
Redlich Kwong (RK)
Soave Redlich Kwong (SRK)
Peng Robinson (PR)
Etc…
Specific Heat
• Also called heat capacity  measures how much heat can be stored

• Energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of substance by one degree

• Large C = more energy (heat) needed to facilitate a temperature change

Cv   Tu  v C P   Th  P

• Applies to single phases only (liquid or solid)

(since a phase change occurs with constant temperature)

• k = Cp/Cv (1.4 for air and diatomic gasses, 1.3 for steam)
Specific Heat for Ideal Gases
CP    Cv   
h = u + Pv h u
Pv = RT T P T v

du  Cv  T  dT
dh = du + RdT
u = f(T) * dh  C P  T  dT
* Joule, et. al.
h = f(T)
Cp(T)dT= Cv(T)dT+ RdT h  h2  h1 u  u2  u1
  C P  T  dT   Cv  T  dT
2 2
Cp = Cv + R
1 1
 Solids & Liquids… U, H and Cp
• Solids and liquids are considered incompressible
Cp = Cv = C
See Table A-3 for a listing of C for common liquids and solids
Consequences of this:
Enthalpy equation simplifies (v is nearly constant)
dh= du + vdP
dh = C(T)dT + vdP
For small changes in temperature can use Cavg in place of C(T)
• If constant pressure….. Dh = CavgDT
• If constant temperature….. Dh = vDP
Example 2-15
Vapor Pressure & Phase Equilibrium
Dalton's Law: Pt = SPi
For air / water system
Patm = Pair + PH2O

Relative Humidity (φ)… appropriate on a day like today

Ratio of water in air to maximum that can be held
Pv = φ *Psat
 Evaporation – occurs at the V-L interface
 Boiling – occurs at the S-L interface

See Example 2-16

 Thermodynamics
ENG 214
Chapter 3 – Energy Transfer By Heat, Work & Mass
Heat Transfer (Q)
Q: What is heat?
Heat – a form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system
and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference [between them]

Adiabatic - no heat transfers from system to surroundings (Q=0)

Heat Transfer – Some Background
• In the 1700’s they thought heat was a “fluid-like” substance [Lavoisier]
Known as Caloric – that’s where he unit of Calorie comes from.

• By the mid 1800’s kinetic theory developed.

Heat is the energy associated with the interaction of molecules

• Three mechanisms for heat transfer

• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
 The Three Modes of Heat Transfer
• Conduction – Movement of heat through direct contact. Heat is transfer by molecular vibration
(like when your torch heats a fitting, heating the adjacent pipe along with it).

• Convection – Movement of heat through fluid motion.

(motion can be either forced [pumped] or natural [density driven])

• Radiation - Photons (“energy packets”) are absorbed

(hold your hand near a hot stove or around a campfire.)

• MORE ON THIS LATER TONIGHT….

Work (W)
Work – Energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance
Energy that cross the boundary of a closed system, if not heat MUST be work

W
w
m
W
Power 
t
Work
Q: Name some types of work?
Types of Work
- Electrical
- Magnetic
- Gravitational
- Mechanical
- Shaft
- Spring
- Moving Boundary
- Elastic
- Surface Tension
- Lifting
- Electric Polarization
Work
Formal sign convention for Work and Heat

Heat transfer to a system

and work done by a system are positive.
(+)

Heat transfer from a system (-)

and work done on a system are negative
(-)

Path functions have inexact differentials (δ)

(+)
Point function have exact differential (d)
Work is a PATH Function
How you get there is important
State Function – Only depends on initial and final states
Path Function – How you get there makes a difference

2
1
dV  V2  V1  V

2
1 W  W12 NOT W2-W1
Work
1) Candle burring in a well insulated room. Taking the room as the system,
determine if there is any heat transfer and if there is a change in internal
energy.

2) A potato initially at room temperature (25C) is being baked in an oven that

is maintained at 200 C . Is there any heat transfer during the baking
processes?

3) A well insulated electric oven is being heated through its heating elements
If the entire oven, including the heating element, is taken to be the system,
determine whether there is either a heat or a work interaction.

4) What if the system is taken as only the air without the heating element?
Electrical Work
Ẇe = VI  Expression for Ẇe assumes no variation with time

2
WHERE: We   VIdt
1
Ẇe = Electrical Power (BTU/hr, hP, etc.)
If V and I are constant over the time period in question
V = Potential Difference (Volts)
I = Current (Amps) 2
We  VI  dt  VIt
1
Also:
V = IR

So:
Ẇe = I2R
 Mechanical Work
Work done by a constant force (F) on a body displaced by a distance (s)
W= Fs
For non-constant force:
2
W   Fds
1

For a work interaction to occur between the system and surroundings

1) there must be a force acting on the boundary
2) The boundary must MOVE

In many thermodynamic problems, mechanical work is the only for of work involved
Moving Boundary Work
Moving boundary work

Quasi-Steady State
dWb = F dS = PA dS = P dV
2
Wb   PdV
Pv diagram 1

2 2
Quasi equilibrium expansion
Area  A   dA   PdV
1 1
Moving Boundary Work
5) A rigid tank contains air at 500 kPa and 150 C. As a result of heat transfer to
the surroundings, T and P inside the tank drop to 65 C and 400 kPa respectively.
Determine the boundary work done.

6) A frictionless piston cylinder contains 10 lbm of water vapor at 60 psia and

320 F. Heat is transferred to the steam until the temperature reaches 400 F. If
the piston is not attached to a shaft and it mass is constant, determine the work
done by the steam doing the process.

7) a piston cylinder device initially contains 0.4m3 of air at 100 kPa and 80 C.
The air is compressed to 0.1m3 in such a way that the temperature inside the
cylinder remains constant. Determine the work done during this processes.

(Note the sign of the answer #7)

Moving Boundary Work
Relates volume to pressure
Polytrophic process P = CV-n
Thus
 n 1  n 1
2 2 V V P2V2  P1V1
WB   PdV   CV dV  C n 2 1

1 1  n 1 1 n
For an ideal gas this simplifies further…
And for special case of n =1
Shaft Work
Energy transfer by a rotating shaft
If Torque (T) is constant, Force (F) applied is constant
Force acts a distance (s) which is related to radius (s= 2prn)
W = 2pnT

3.8) Determine the power transmitted through the shaft of a car when the
torque applied is 200 Nm and the shaft rotates at a rate of 4000 rpm.
Spring Work
δWspring = Fdx
F=kx [Hook’s law]
Substituting and integrating:
WSpring = ½ k (x22-x12)

3-9) A piston cylinder device contains 0.05 m3 of gas initially at 200 kPa. At this
state, a linear spring that has a spring constant of 150 kN/m is touching the
piston but exerting no force on it. Now heat is transferred to the gas, causing
the piston to rise and compress the spring until the volume inside the cylinder
doubles. If the cross sectional area of the piston is 0.25 m2, determine the final
pressure inside the cylinder, total work done by the gas, and the fraction of this
work done against the spring to compress it.
Other forms of Work
2 2
Welastic    n dV    n Adx
Elastic solid bars (sn = F/A) 1 1
2
Wsurface    s dA
Stretching a liquid film 1

Raise or accelerate a body

3-10) A 1200 kg car cursing steadily on a level road at 90 km/hr. It then start
climbing a hill sloped 30 deg. From the horizontal. If the velocity of the car
remains constant during climbing, determine the additional power that must be
delivered to the engine.

3-11) Determine the power required to accelerate a 900 kg car shown

in figure 3-37 from rest to a velocity of 80 kg/hr in 20 s on a level road.
Non-mechanical work
Electrical – Force (Voltage) causes displacement (charge)
2
We   VIdt
1

Magnetic - Magnetic Force causes a dipole moment

Electrical polarization work – Electric Field Strength causes polarization

Conservation of Mass

Mass balance (in – out + generation – consumption = accumulation)

Continuity equation

Mass balance for steady flow

Special case of incompressible fluids

Example 3-12, 3-13

Flow Work

F=PA
W=FL=PAL=PV
W=Pv

Total Energy
E = u + ke + pe = u + v2/2 + gz
Flowing fluid
Eq 3-48 3-49
Energy transport by mass

Exn 3-50 to 3-52

3-14) Steam is leaving a 4L pressure cooker whose operating pressure is 150

kPa. It is observed that the amount of liquid in the cooker has decreased by
0.6L in 40 minutes after steady operating conditions are established, and the
cross sectional area of the exit opening is 8 mm2. Determine the mass flow rate
of the steam an the exit velocity, the total and flow energy fo the steam per
unit mass, and the rates at which energy is leaving the cooker by steam
 The Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
• Conduction – Movement of heat through direct contact. Heat is transfer by molecular vibration
(like when your torch heats a fitting, heating the adjacent pipe along with it).

• Convection – Movement of heat through fluid motion.

(motion can be either forced [pumped] or natural [density driven])

• Radiation - Photons (“energy packets”) are absorbed

(hold your hand near a hot stove or around a campfire.)
 Conduction & Fourier's Law
• Conduction – Movement of heat through direct contact. Heat is transfer by molecular vibration
(like when your torch heats a fitting, heating the adjacent pipe along with it).

• Q = -k A dT/dx
 Convective Heat Transfer – Newton’s Law of Cooling
• Convection – Movement of heat through fluid motion.
(motion can be either forced [pumped] or natural [density driven])

NATURAL vs. FORCED

Heat transfer coefficient (h)

Qconv = hA(Ts-Tf)
 Radiation Kirchhoff’s Law
• Radiation - Photons (“energy packets”) are absorbed
(hold your hand near a hot stove or around a campfire.)
Final Example for Tonight…

3-15) Consider a person standing in a breezy room at 20 C. Determine the total

rate of heat transfer form this person if the exposed surface area and the
average outer surface temperature of the person are 1.6m2 and 29C
respectively, and the convection heat transfer coefficient is 6 W/m2-C
Homework…

3-1C, 3-2C, 3-3C, 3-4C, 3-5C, 3-6C, 3-8C, 3-9C, 3-10C, 3-11C, 3-12C, 3-13C,
3-35C, 3-36C, 3-45C, 3-46C, 3-47C, 3-48C, 3-57C, 3-58C, 3-59C, 3-63C, 3-64C,
3-65C, 3-66C, 3-67C, 3-68C

3-14, 3-15, 3-8, 3-21, 3-24, 3-27, 3-29, 3-31, 3-37, 3-43, 3-44, 3-50, 3-53, 3-56,
3-62, 3-73, 3-87, 3-89E, 3-95, 3-98E

3-99, 3-100, 3-101, 3-102, 3-103, 3-104, 3-105, 3-106, 3-107, 3-108

OBVIOUSLY you won’t get this all done by Thursday

Attempt ten (10) of the above by next class. If you get stuck bring questions.