Thermodynamics

ENG 214
Chapter 6 – Entropy
Quick Review – Heat Engines &
Refrigerators
Recall from Last Class…
• A reversible heat engine is more efficient than a irreversible one
• A reversible refrigerator cycle (or heat pump)
has a higher COP than an irreversible cycle.
• These real world inefficiencies cause a deviation from the ideal
• Inefficient due to heat loss, friction, irreversible losses, etc.
• Let’s start by looking at the ideal case…
Generalized expression for cyclic devices
(heat pumps, refrigerators, etc.)
QH = magnitude of heat transfer between the cyclic
device and the high temperature medium at TH

QL = magnitude of heat transfer between the cyclic

device and the low temperature medium at TL

QH & QL are ALWAYS Positive

Thus: WNET (OUT) = QH - QL

WNET ( OUT )
th 
QH

QL TL
th  1  and th rev  1
QH TH
A slight twist on the Carnot Cycle…
• Consider a reversible cyclic device whose heat
discharges to a piston cylinder as shown
• We can do an energy balance around
the combined system
DQ-DW = DE(closed system, no mass flow)
δQR – (δWrev+ δWsys) = δE (note differential)

Since the cycle is REVERSIBLE…

QR Q

TR T
So
δQR – (δWrev+ δWsys) = δE
And..
QR Q Q
 QR  TR
TR T rearranging T

Q
TR  Wrev  Wsys   E
T
Combined System is at Steady State (δE = 0)
Q
TR  Wc
T
Where δ Wc = δWrev + δWsys
 Q
TR  Wc
T
Q
Wc  TR 
T
TR is an absolute temperature (K or R)
and always positive

BUT… no heat sink so no work out (Wc = 0)

 Q 
0   
 T  int rev

BUT… can we put work IN (Wc < 0) without a heat sink?

BUT… can we put work IN (Wc < 0) without a heat sink?
Then what?

Work in will be more than work out, so Wc is negative.

Q
Wc  TR 
T
Q
 T 0
The above integral is the Clausius Inequality.
Clausius Inequality
Q
 T 0
 Q 
  T intrev  0 For Ideal Combined System (Internally Reversible)

 Q 
s  This is the DEFINITION of Entropy
 T  int rev
Increase in Entropy Principle
1
• Consider a two process cycle
• 1 to 2 is either reversible or irreversible
• 2 to 1 is reversible
We know that :
Q
 T 0 2

So for the cycle:

2
Q  Q 
1

1 T  2  T int rev
0
Increase in Entropy Principle
Q  Q 
2 1

1 T  2  T int rev
0

Thus:
2
Q
1 T S1  S 2  0
Rearranging:
2
Q
S 2  S1  
1
T
 Increase in Entropy Principle
Q2
S 2  S1  
1
T
• S2 – S1 is the entropy change of the SYSTEM
• For normal (non-internally reversible) processes:
S2-S1 > 0
So entropy is ALWAYS generated (Sgen)

So the increase in entropy depends on the PROCESS and

NOT the property (state) of the system

Sgen= DStotal = (DSSystem + DSsurroundings) ≥ 0

Increase in Entropy Principle
So for ANY given Process

 0 Irreversib le

S gen  0 Re versible
 0 Im possible


Note that Entropy is NOT conserved.

Processes proceed to a state of INCREASING Entropy

What is Entropy? Statistical Thermo
Viewpoint
• A measure of disorder at the molecular level
• The more the disorder, the greater the entropy
Solid  Liquid  Gas (increase entropy)

s= k ln p
Where:
k = Boltzmann Constant = 1.3806 x10-23 J/K
p = thermodynamic probability

Probability (p) gives the statistical distribution of molecules.

More entropy  more randomness

In practical terms this means higher temperature and/or lower pressures gas has more entropy
T dS Relation
• Recall that

 Q 
s 
 T  int rev
• For constant T there is no change in entropy IF process is reversible.

• What if T changes?
dQ – dW = dU
dQ = TdS
dW = P dV
T dS = dU + P dV
Entropy Change of a Substance in a Tank
3) A rigid tank contains 5 kg of refrigerant 134a initially at 20 C
and 140 kPa. The refrigerant is now cooled while being stirred until its
pressure drops to 100 kPa. Determine the entropy change of the
refrigerant during the process.
Entropy Change During Constant Pressure
4) A piston cylinder device initially contains 3 lbm of liquid water
at 20 psia and 70 F. The water is now heated at constant pressure by
the addition of 3450 BTU of heat. Determine the entropy change of the
water during this process.
Entropy change of a pure substance
• Entropy is a state property
• Can be graphed similar to h, P, v
• Typically plotted vs. T
• Entropy values can be tabulated
• As with h, u values of s are
relative to a reference state

DS = mDs=m(s2-s1)
Property Diagrams
Recall That:

 Q 
s
Plotting a T-s Diagram

2  T int rev
T Area under the process curve is
the heat transfer.

1 Qnet

ds s
Entropy change for an Isentropic Process
• Isentropic process – entropy is constant
• Implies process is INTERNALLY reversible
• Can be used to model ideal pumps, turbines, nozzles, diffusers
Where irreversibility's (such as frictional losses) are negligible
• Mathematically
Ds = 0 or s1 = s2

Note: A reversible adiabatic process (Q=0) is isentropic

BUT all isentropic process are NOT necessarily adiabatic nor reversible
Isentropic Expansion in a Steam Turbine
5) Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 5 MPa and 450C and leaves at a
pressure of 1.4 MPa. Determine the work output of the turbine per
unit mass of steam if the process is reversible.
The T-s diagram for the Carnot cycle
6) Show the Carnot cycle on a T-S diagram and indicate the areas that
represent the heat supplied, QH, heat rejected, QL, and the net work
output, Wnet, out on this diagram

Recall that Carnot cycle consist of:

1) Reversible, Isothermal Expansion
2) Reversible, Adiabatic Expansion
3) Reversible, Isothermal Compression
4) Reversible, Adiabatic Compression
Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids
• Can treat solids (and even liquids) as incompressible
du Pdv
ds  
T T
du CdT
ds  
T T
 T2 
s  s 2  s1  Cavg ln  
 T1 
Effect of Density of Liquid on Entropy
7) Liquid methane is commonly used in various cryogenic applications.
The critical temperature of methane is 193 K (or -82°C), and this
methane must be maintained below 191 K to keep it in liquid phase.
The properties of liquid methane are given in Table 6-1 on page
322Determine the entropy change of liquid methane as it undergoes a
process from 110 K and 1 Mpa to 120 K and 5 Mpa (a) using actual data
(b) approximating liquid methane as an incompressible substance.
Economics of Replacing a Valve by a Turbine
8) A cryogenic manufacturing facility handles liquid methane at 115 K
and 5 Ma at a rate of 0.280 me/s. A process requires dropping the
pressure of liquid methane to 1 Mpa, which is done by throttling the
liquid methane by passing it through a flow resistance such as a valve.
A recently hired engineer proposed to replace the throttling valve by a
turbine in order to produce power while dropping the pressure to
1 Mpa. Using data from table 6-1, determine the maximum amount of
power that can be produced by such a turbine. Also, determine how
much this turbine will save the facility from electric usage cost per year
if the turbine operates continually (8760 hr/yr) and the facility pays
$0.075/kWh for electricity.
 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas
du Pdv dh vdP
ds   ds  
T T T T
du  Cv dT dh  C p dT

RT RT
P v
v P
dT  dP 
dT dv ds  C P  T   R 
ds  Cv R T  P 
T v
2
dT  v2 
2
dT  P2 
s  s2  s1   Cv  T   R ln   s  s2  s1   C P  T   R ln  
1
T  v1  1
T  P1 
Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas
• Cp (or Cv) are functions of Temperature
• Even when expression for Cp (or Cv) as a function of T are available
numerical integration is cumbersome at best.
• Can use an average value Cp (or Cv) over short temperature ranges
• Can also tabulate relative to so [entropy @ Absolute Zero = 0]
T
dT
s   CP  T 
o

0
T
2
dT
C 
1 P T 2 1
T   s 0
 s 0

 P2 
s  s2  s1  s 2  s 1  R ln  
o o

 P1 
Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas
9) Air is compressed from an initial state of 100 kPa and 17 C to a final
state of 600 kPa and 57 C. Determine the entropy change of air during
this compression by using (a) tabulated date and (b) average specific
heats.
Isentropic Process of Idea Gases
2
dT  v2 
s   Cv  T   R ln   R  C p  Cv
1
T  v1 
Cp
 T2   v2  k
0  Cv ln    R ln   Cv
 T1   v1  k 1
 T2   v1 
 T2  R  v2      
ln     ln    T1   v2 
 T1  Cv  v1 
R / Cv
 T2   v1 
ln    ln  
 T1   v2 
Isentropic Process of Idea Gases…
2
dT  P2 
s   C P  T   R ln   R  C p  Cv
1
T  P1 
Cp
 T2   P2  k
0  C P ln    R ln   Cv
 T1   P1  
C p C p Cv 
 T2   P2 
 T2  R  P2      
ln    ln    T1   P1 
 T1  C P  P1 
 k 1 k
CP / R  T2   P2 
 T2   P2      
ln    ln    T1   P1 
 T1   P1 
Isentropic Process of Idea Gases
k 1
 T2   v1 
     T k 1  cons tan t
 T1   v2 
 k 1 k
 T2   P2 
     TP  1 k  k  cons tan t
 T1   P1 

k
 P2   v1 
     Pv k  cons tan t
 P1   v2 
For Variable Specific Heats
T
dT
s   CP  T 
o

0
T
 P2 
s  s2  s1  s 2  s 1  R ln  
o o

 P1 
 P2 
0  s 2  s 1  R ln  
o o

 P1 
 P2 
s 2  s 1  R ln  
o o

 P1 
Relating Pressure to Entropy (Ideal Gas)
 P2 
s 2  s 1  R ln  
o o

 P1 

P2  s 2  s1 
o o

 exp 
P1  R 
 

P2


exp s o2 R 
o
P1 exp s 1 R 
Pr  s o R
Relating Pressure to Entropy (Ideal Gas)

P1 1 P2 2

T1 T2

 2 P1T2

 1 P2T1

 r  T PR

 2   r2
  
  1  s const.  r1
Isentropic Compression of Air in an Engine
10) Air is compressed in a car engine from 22 C and 95 kPa in a
reversible and adiabatic manner. If the compression ratio is V2/V1, of
this piston cylinder device is 8.0 determine the final temperature of the
Air.
Isentropic Compression of Air in an Engine
11) Helium gas is compressed in an adiabatic compressor from an initial
state of 14 psia and 50 F to a final temperature of 320 F in a reversible
manner. Determine the exit pressure of the helium.
Reversible Steady Flow Work
• Work done depends on the path taken
2
Wb   PdV
1
• Recall that energy balance is given by
DQ – DW = DE = Dh + Dke + Dpe
• For a reversible process
dqrev – dwrev = dh + dke + dpe
• Recall that
dqrev = Tds AND T ds = dh- vdP
• Thus
– dwrev = vdP + dke + dpe
 Reversible Steady Flow Work
– dwrev = vdP + dke + dpe
2
wrev    vdP  ke  pe
1
2
wrev in   vdP  ke  pe
1
For INCOMPRESSIBLE Flow (V is independent of P)

wrev  v P2  P1   ke  pe

 velc 22  velc12 
v P2  P1      g  z2  z1   0 [Bernoulli Equation]

 2 
Compression – Liquid vs. Gas Phases
12) Determine the compressor work input required to compress steam
isentropicly from 100 kPa to 1 MPa, assuming that the steam exists (a)
as a saturated liquid (b) as a saturated vapor at the inlet state.
Minimizing Compression Work
• Work input minimized when compression is reversible
2
Wrev , in  dP
1
• Approximated in real world when specific volumes are small
and temperature of gas is kept low

Lets compare / contrast

Isentropic process (no cooling)
Polytropic process (some cooling)
Isothermal process (maximum cooling)
 Minimizing Compression Work (3 cases)
Isentropic process (no cooling) Pvk = constant
 k 1 k

kR  T2  T1  kRT  P 2  
Wcomp , in      1
k 1 k  1  P1  

Polytropic process (some cooling) Pvn = constant
 n 1 n

nR T2  T1  nRT  P 2  
Wcomp , in      1
n 1 n  1  P1  

Isothermal process (maximum cooling) Pv = constant
 P2 
Wcomp , in  RT ln  
 P1 
 Adding Intercooling
Keeping gas cold is optimal… but gas wants to heat up
What if we compress in stages?
wcomp, in = wcomp I, in + wcomp II, in
 n 1 n  n 1 n

nRT  P x   
nRT  P 2  
Wcomp , in     1     1
n  1  P1   n  1  Px  
  

Px P2
Px   P1 P2  
1/ 2
Or
P1 Px Px
Minimizing inter-stage pressure,
More on Intercooling
Intercooling works best when compression ratio for each stage is identical
Work Input for Various Compressions
13) Air is compressed steadily by a reversible compressor from an inlet
state of 100 kPa and 300 K to an exit pressure of 900 kPa. Determine
the compressor work per unit mass for (a) isentropic compression with
k = 1.4 (b) polytropic with n = 1.4 (c) isothermal compression and (d)
ideal two stage compression with intercooling with a polytropic
exponent of 1.3
Isentropic Efficiency of Steady Flow Process
• If reversible process is the ideal situation
How much do we deviate from the ideal in the real world?
• Ideal is adiabatic and reversible (isentropic)
• Isentropic efficiency = [actual / ideal]
• Lets apply to:
• Turbines
• Compressors & Pumps
• Nozzles
Isentropic Efficiency for a Turbine
Actual Work wa
T  
Isentropic Work ws

h1  h2 a
T 
h1  h2 s

Well designed large turbines can approach 90%

Small turbines may be 70% or less
Isentropic Efficiency of a Steam Turbine
14) Steam enters an adiabatic turbine steadily at 3 Mpa and 400 and
leaves at 50 kPa and 100 C. If the power output of the turbine is 2 MW,
determine (a) the isentropic efficiency of the turbine and (b) the mass
flow rate of steam flowing through the turbine.
 Isentropic Efficiency for a Compressor /
Pump
Isentropic Comprssor Work ws
C  
Actual Work wa

h2 s  h1
C 
h2 a  h 1

Well designed compressors are in the 75% to 85% range

Efficiency and Compressor Power Input
15) Air is compressed by an adiabatic compressor from 100 Kpa abs and
12 C to a pressure of 800 kPa at a steady rate of 0.2 kg/s.
If isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 80% determine (a) the exit
temperature of the air and (b) the required power input to the
compressor.
 Isentropic Efficiency for a Nozzle / Diffuser
2
Actual KE at nozzle exit velc
N   2a
2
Isentropic KE at nozzle exit velc 2 s

h1  h2 a
N 
h1  h2 s v v

Efficiencies of 95% or greater are not uncommon

Efficiency and Nozzle Exit Velocity
16) Air at 200 kPa and 950 K enter an adiabatic nozzle at low velocity
and is discharged at a pressure of 80 kPa . If the isentropic efficiency of
the nozzle is 92% determine (a) the maximum possible exit velocity (b)
the exist temperature and (c) the actual velocity of the Air.
Assume constant specific heats.
Entropy Balance
• Entropy can be balanced
IN – OUT + GEN – CONS = ACC
Sin – Sout + Sgen – 0 = Dssystem

• Can be transferred in or out via

• Heat Transfer (Sheat = Q/T)
• Mass Flow (Smass = ms)
• IT CANNOT BE TRANSFERRED BY WORK!! (Swork = 0)

• Only leaves Entropy Generation

• Per the 2nd Law / Clausis inequality Entropy cannot be consumed
by a system only generated
Entropy Generation in a Wall
17) Consider steady heat transfer through a 5 m x 6 m brick wall of a
house of thickness 30 cm. On a day when the temperature of the
outdoors is 0 C the house is maintained at 27 C. The temperature of the
inner and outer surfaces of the brick wall are measured to be 20 C and
5 C, respectively and the rate of heat transfer through the wall is 1035
W. Determine the rate of entropy generation in the wall, and the rate of
total entropy generation associated with the heat transfer process.
Entropy Generation During Throttling
18) Steam at 7 MPa and 450 C is throttled in a valve to a pressure of 3
MPa during a steady flow process. Determine the entropy generated
during this process and check if the increase in entropy is satisfied.
A Hot Block tossed in a lake..
19) A 50 kg block of iron casting at 500 K is thrown into a large lake that
is at a temperature of 285 K. The iron block eventual reaches thermal
equilibrium with the lake water. Assuming an average specific heat of
0.45 kJ/kg-K for the iron, determine (a) the entropy change of the iron
block (b) the entropy change of the lake, (c) the entropy generated
during the process.
Entropy Generation in a Mixing Chamber
20) Water at 20 psia and 50 F enters a mixing chamber at a rate
of 300 lbm/min where it is mixed steadily with stem entering at 20 pisa
and 240 F. The mixture leaves the chamber at 20 psia and 130 F, and
heat is lost to the surrounding air at 70 F at a rate of 180 BTU/min.
Neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energies, determine the
rate of entropy generation during this process.
Entropy Generation Associated With Q
21) A frictionless piston cylinder device contains a saturated liquid
vapor mixture of water at 100 C. During a constant pressure process,
600 kJ of heat is transferred to the surrounding air at 25 C. As a result,
part of the water vapor contained in the cylinder condenses. Determine
(a) the entropy change of the water (b) the total entropy generation
during the heat transfer process.