Theories and Approaches

The Classical Approaches-Realism and

Liberalism.
Post-modernism, Constructivism, International
society, Feminism.
 Students of IR often ask;

 How is a theory applied on a certain situation?

 If I ask you:

 Is there more Peace or Conflict in the contemporary world?

 How would you respond?

 Think and relate …
 How does Pakistan deal with India ?

 How does Pakistan behave with China?

 One Country two behaviors …!

 How would a student of IR analyze the behavior of Pakistan?

 What is Theory?

 Theory is speculation about - how to explain what happens.

 Theory attempts to observe (who are involved), describe (the

type of relationship they have), and predict (how will they
behave in future) in any field of inquiry.

 Let us apply on Pak – India relations.

 Key Concepts
Anarchy
 Literal meaning ‘chaos’ & ‘disorder’.

 In IR it means - ‘absence of International government’.

 There is no government that can govern the behaviour od states.

 That is why - Iran, Russia, and US in Syria, Russia in Ukraine,

and KSA in Yemen are involved.
Security Dilemma
When a state increases its power, it actually decreases the power of its
competitor.

Hegemony
Dominant Influence exercised by one nation over others.

Power (ability to influence)

Military strength, Population, Size, Territory, location, Source
Endowment, Economic Capability, technological advancement, etc.
 Balance of Power
“An even distribution of power among states [in a region mostly]
in such a way that no state has advantage over other”.

 Interdependence
Mutual Trade among countries.

 Zero Sum
A gain of one side is the lost of the other.
Realism Defined;

“World politics is a struggle among self-interested states for

power and position under anarchy, with each competing state
pursuing its own national interests”.

 It believes that International System is anarchic.

 Int. Politics is power politics.

 Realism

 Realism is the oldest & most dominant theory of IR.

 Its modern roots can be traced to the;

1. E. H. Carr’s “twenty years crisis 1939”,

2. Morgenthau’s “Politics among Nations 1948”.

 It has ancient roots in the writings of Thucydides, Machiavelli,

and Hobbes.
 Modern realism is characterized as the reaction against the
idealists (1919-1939) thinking.

 The outbreak of WWII exposed the deficiencies in liberal

thinking.

 That [liberalism] believed that int. institutions like LoN will

avert future wars.
 Essence of Realism

 Lays focus on great powers, not weak states.

 Focus on the balance of power. (competition)

 Little attention is paid on domestic politics.

 Basic Assumptions of Realism

 A pessimistic view of human nature.

 Politics is necessarily conflictual and conflicts are resolved by

war.

 Focuses on national security.

 Discusses states as main actors, in competition with one

another.
 Int. system is anarchic and conflict-prone.

 Power is the currency of international politics.

 States must acquire power to survive.

 Like humans, states are also obsessed about their own well-
being.
Essentials of Realism (3 S)

 Statism
It deals state as unit of analysis – all debate revolves around
state.
 Survival
State must elongate her existence – survival is pre-condition to
other objectives.
 Self Help
In anarchic system no state can be relied upon for state interests
(1971 Pakistan)(2015 KSA)
 Classical Realism – “IR is the result of Human Nature” 

Thucydides (395-460 BC)

 Man is a ‘political animal’.

 States are like animals – different in size and power.

 They strive for power and wish to dominate others.

 Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)

 Power (the Lion) and deception (the Fox) are the two essential
means for FP.

 Ruler must be a lion – when powerful, and cunning when weak.

 Ruler should seek dominance to ensure survival.

 Ruler must not act according to Christian ethics; “Love your

neighbour”, be peaceful, be charitable.
 Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

 System is anarchic.

 People find themselves in permanent ‘state of war’.

 When the is no government there is ‘state of war’.

 War of all against all is inevitable – to survive.

 Hans J. Morgenthau (1904-1980)

 Men and women are borne to pursue power.

 They have Lust for Power.

 This lust brings them into conflict with each other.

 Morgenthau’s Realism

 Politics have roots in human nature.

 Interest determine political conduct.

 Interests defined in terms of power.

 Realism rejects the legalistic-moralist approach to Int. Politics.

 Structural Realism

 “The structure of the international System influences the

behaviour of the states based on global hierarchy defined
primarily by distribution of power”. 

 Advanced by Kenneth Waltz, in his book “Theory of

International Politics”,1979.
 structure compels states to act in a certain way, structure
determine actions. (billiard balls)

 SR explains the behaviour of great powers.

 States are always conscious about the balance of power.

Vicious BOP cycle
1 Anarchic
Structure

4 B.O.P International 2 Security

System Dilemma

3 Power
Maximizat
ion
 Offensive Realism
 
 John Mearsheimer – to ensure survival, it is best to become the
most powerful state of the region/globe.

 He argues, ‘states seek regional hegemony’. India in South Asia,

China in Asia as US did in Western hemisphere.

 Hegemon states don’t allow the rise of competitor in order to stay

dominant. (India to Pak, US to China)
 Off. realism explains and predict US behaviour

1. US against Germany in WWI

2. US against Germany and Japan in WWII
3. US against USSR during Cold-War.

 If any of these countries had attained hegemony in Europe -

would have marched to US.

 How will US counter the rise of China in Asia……..??

 Defensive Realism

 Kenneth Waltz - believes that state must seek power enough for its
security.

 Because, excessive power accumulation provokes neighbours to

unite against.

 Therefore, it is foolish to go for excessive power.

 Core Beliefs of Liberalism

 An optimistic approach to global politics based on;

1. Rejects power politics.
2. Mutual Benefits and cooperation.
3. Economic interdependence.
4. Int. Institutions –UNO, EU, IMF, WB, ASEAN, G7, G20,
etc.
5. Free trade and democracy.
6. Focuses more on individuals than states.
 Liberals Assumptions
Assumptions

 Positive view of human nature.

 belief that human nature can be cooperative.

 Believes in progress and mutual benefits.

Types of Liberalism

Sociological Liberals
 Emphasise transnational non-governmental ties among
societies, individual and groups.

Interdependence Liberals
 Pay particular attention to economic ties of mutual exchange
and mutual dependence between people and governments.
Institutional Liberals
 Highlight the importance of organized cooperation between states.
UNO, ASEAN, EU, BRICs, SCO etc.

Republican Liberals
 Argue that liberal democratic institutions, like pol parties and
democratic governments are necessary to ensure peaceful
cooperative relations among states.
Democratic Peace Kant
 Neo-Liberalism / Neoliberal Institutionalism

 Neoliberalism refers to extensive economic liberalization

policies related to free trade and privatization to enhance the
role of the private sector in the economy .

 It believes in the role of international institutions (esp. MNCs) in

promoting cooperation, peace and prosperity.
 Roots of Liberalism
 John Lock (1632-1704) emphasized Individual progress, societal
growth, and capitalist economy.

 Kant (1724-1804) supported the idea of int. law among

democracies for peace.

 Liberalism was facilitated by industrial revolution (1760-1840).

 Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) believed in cooperation and
international Institutions – (LoN).
 Liberalism ups and downs in 20th Century

 1920 LoN: to ensure peace and cooperation.

 WWII muted this optimism started after WWI .

 Yet another surge came in 1945 (UNO).

 Again Cold-War ended this optimism.

 End of cold war and disintegration of USSR.

 Post-modernism

 A lens, through which things are known.

 Approach to knowing - what is truth & what not.

 It introduced questioning of the previous approaches to

knowing.
 Post-modernism
 Scepticism towards all established narratives.

 Post-modernism is essentially concerned with deconstructing

the claims.
1. “Muslims are terrorists”.
2. “China is not a democracy”.
3. “Democracy as the only legitimate form of govt”.

 Teaches how things are created and accepted.

 Its significance in relation to IR

 Politicians, leaders, authors, writers, and policy makers are not

impartial.

 Individuals have their own biases and interests.

 Thoughts are guided & social realities are constructed.

 Social Constructivism

 Constructivism believes that neither objects nor concepts have

any necessary, fixed, or objective meaning; rather, their
meanings are constructed through social interaction.

 Constructivists focus on social, political, and religious aspects

of IR than material military and economic power.

 We give meanings to the objects. China and US

Social Constructivism
Reality constructivism

 Reality does not exist.

 When leaders say something – that occurs.

 You construct social reality by saying.

Iraq WMDs, North Korean Nukes.

 Alexander Wendt, “people act towards objects and people on
the basis of the meanings that the objects have for them”.

Iran and nukes of France & Britain for USA???

 States act differently towards enemies and friends

 Enemies are threatening, whereas, friends are not.

 Assumptions

 States are unit of analysis.

 Identities (friends & foe, terrorist & Mujahid, good & bad, Ally
& competitor) are constructed.
 Class Activity …

 During Cold War, the USA felt threatened by Soviet nukes.

Why cold war ended, Russia still holds Nukes?
 Realism: US defeated Soviets.
 Liberalism: Economic relations ended conflict.
 Constructivism: Nuclear weapons have not disappeared, but
the threat perception has changed.

Americans act according to realism and justify policies in

terms of liberalism.
 International Society

 An approach – focuses on human being & their political

beliefs.

 It is a middle way between realism and liberalism.

Assumptions

 IR is a branch of human relations. (not about state to state

relations)

 Based on values such as independence, security, justice, and

order.

 World politics is an “Anarchical Society”.

 Evolution of International Society

There mainly two ways to describe relations;

 1 conflictual, war, defeats etc. (realist)

 2 cooperation, world govt. (Liberal)

Int. society is a combination of both extremes.

 Medieval Times; Christianity and Islam

 From 500 – 1500 European society under control of roman

catholic church.

 Islam developed its own understanding of international society.

 Holy Makkah has sent a message to Geneva:
Ought there be unity of mankind or unity among the nations?
 Contemporary int. society

“Contemporary international society comprises the norms, rules,

practices, and institutions governing the relations among
sovereign states”, e.g. European Union.
Feminism
 Feminism a theory.

 Feminism grew out of Feminist movement of the 1960s &1970s,

to achieve political, social and economic equality for women.

 It explains women’s subordination, and to seek ways to end it.

 Gender in IR
 It rejects that Power comes out from barrel of the gun.

 Gender in IR provides inclusive view of globalization, where

women have equal role as do men.

 It discusses effects of social and industrial policies on women.

 Key Concepts of Feminism in IR
 Man. As we know, Realism and Liberalism see people as
rational beings. This concept is made by men to stay in power.

 The State. Rather than conceiving the state simply a reflection

of sovereignty, some IR scholars view states as reflective of
men’s power.

 Men are identified as bringers of order, while women are

identified with private thinking.
 Power. Is conceived as "power-over" men, or to influence men.

 Feminists believe it is male-centric, because autonomy frees a

human being from all influences.
 War and Feminism

 Legitimacy of war is based on that men fight wars to protect

‘vulnerable people’

 Yet, women and children are killed in wars.

Feminists highlight:

 Militaries are often threats to individuals’ (particularly

women security, wartime rape as a deliberate military
strategy.
 Conclusion

 The central claim is that gender is a social issue and not a

biological one;

 The rejection of male dominance in IR.

 Has passionate interest in the possibilities for change in world

politics.
 Questions;

 Why do Realists claim that states must pursue power? and why do power
is considered the solution of all problems faced by the state?
 Is unipolarity more peaceful than bipolarity or multipolarity? And, is
realism relevant in contemporary Europe?
 How would a realist analyze the current problems in international system?
 What is the security dilemma and is there a solution to it?
 Which of the theories Liberalism and realism best explains international
politics?
 Why are states obsessed with Balance of Power?