CHAPTER 2: KEY TO

INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
MGT430

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES
• LO2.1 MARS Model of • LO2.4 Values in the Workplace
Behaviour and Performance – LO2.4.1 Types of Value –
• LO2.2 Types of Individual Schwartz’s Value Theory
Behaviour
– LO2.4.2 Values and Individual
• LO2.3 Personality in
Organizations Behaviour
– LO2.3.1 Personality – LO2.4.3 Values Congruence
determinants : Nature
versus Nurture
– LO2.3.2 Five Factor
Model Personality

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 LO2.1 MARS Model of Behaviour and
Performance

Individual • No two persons are alike. All the

difference individuals differ from each other in many
ways.
• Individual • This difference is seen in physical forms like
difference is in height, weight, colour, complexion
strength etc., difference in intelligence,
defined as the way achievement, interest, attitude, aptitude,
in which people learning habits, motor abilities, skill. Each
differ from one man has an intellectual capacity through
another. which he gains experience and learning. In
addition every person has the emotions of
love, anger, fear and feelings of pleasure
and pain. Every man has the need of
independence, success and need for
acceptance.

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 LO2.1 MARS Model of Behaviour and Performance – why important?
• Understanding individual differences
will make us understand other
people better - empathy
• Understanding Individual difference
has a tremendous impact on a
person’s job satisfaction level,
individuals’ stress levels, motivation
level and many more
• Awareness or Individual difference
will likely influence leadership and
motivation styles and their
outcomes
• Understanding Individual difference is
important in getting a person fit and
organizational fit - suitability
• Individual differences in people influences
organizational problems like conflict,
stress and many more and thus
understanding it can help manager
improves organizational effectiveness and
efficiency.
• People with different personality act
differently in a situation so understanding
individual differences will help
understanding situation better.
• What do you think?
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 LO2.1 MARS Model of Behaviour and Performance
• Earlier findings found that
for performance predictors:
– performance = person
(individual characteristics) x
situation factors (external
influences on the individual’s
behaviour)
• Later findings: more refined…..
• performance = ability (individual natural
aptitudes and learned capabilities) x
motivation (the forces within a person that
affect his/her direction, intensity and
persistence of voluntary behaviour) x
situation factors
• In 1960’s a fourth predictor of performance
was identified – role perception (individual’s
expected role obligations)
• THUS A MODEL WAS FORMULATED
INCORPORATING ALL THESE VARIABLES
CALLED THE MARS MODEL – see next slide
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 MARS Model of Individual Behavior

Personality Role The explanation to this

Perceptions model is on the next slide
Values
Self-concept
Motivation Individual
Perceptions
Behavior and
Emotions Results
Ability
Attitudes
Situational
Stress Factors

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 THE MARS • SECOND POINT
MODEL – Motivation, ability and role perceptions are clustered
• THIS IS A BASIC MODEL together to indicate that they are located within a
OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR person
AND PERFORMANCE
– On the other hand, situational factors are external but
• Shown in the diagram are
the DRIVERS of individual
play a major role in affecting a person’s behaviour
behavior and performance and performance.
(role perceptions, • THIRD POINT
motivation ,ability and
– These factors have a combined effect on individual
situational factors)
performance. If any factor weakens, employee’s
• FIRST POINT
performance will decreases.
– All four factors are
critical influences on an • FOURTH POINT
individual’s or an – For example, if an enthusiastic salesperson (motivation
employee’s voluntary high) who understands his/her job duties (role
behavior and the
resulting performance –
perceptions good) and have sufficient resources
motivation, ability, (situational factors good) will not perform their jobs as
role perceptions well if he/she lacks sufficient knowledge and sales skills
influenced by (ability is low)
situational factors. 7
 DRIVERS MEANINGS ELABORATION
EMPLOYEE Internal forces that affect a Direction is path where people steer their efforts
person’s voluntary choice of (quality/quantity/speed etc.)
MOTIVATION behavior in the forms of its Intensity is the amount of effort put in a goal/goals (pushing oneself to achieve a goal)
direction, intensity and Persistence is continuing an effort in pursuing a goal/goals for a certain amount of time.
persistence. (perseverance/determination/)
Or, the forces within a When driving a car, the place you want to go is the direction, the amount of pressure
person that affect his or her you put in pressing your gas pedal is the intensity and how long you drive is the your
direction, intensity and persistence level.
persistence of voluntary
behavior
ABILITY Our natural aptitudes Aptitudes are our natural talents that will aid us in learning something fast
and our learned or the opposite. Consists of both mental (intelligence)and physical (finger
capabilities required to dexterity).
successfully complete a Learned capabilities are the skills and knowledge that a person’s currently
task possess-physical, mental skills and knowledge we have acquired
Both aptitude and learned capabilities make up competencies –
characteristics of a person that result in superior performance (personality,
creativity, communication skill)
ROLE How clearly a person  Clear role perceptions (their roles and the consequences of their roles)
PERCEPTIONS understand their job  Understand the priority of roles and performance expectations
duties(roles clarity)  Understanding the preferred behavior or procedures in accomplishing a
task/duty 8
 The fourth driver- Situational Factors
• Situational factors - Environmental conditions
beyond the individual’s immediate control that
constrain or facilitate behavior and performance.
A person even though are highly motivated,
skilled and know his/her roles and obligation will
nevertheless performs poorly if he/she is confined
by lack of time, budget, physical work facilities
and other situational factors. 9
Sample past year question:
• 1. Represent how well employees
know where to direct their efforts
Find out the ( perform work accurately/ less
importance of mistakes/not wasting time and energy)
role perceptions • 2. Important for coordination with co-
in influencing workers and other stake holders
behavior • 3. Ensures that expectations are met
outcome and work are executed on time and
safely
• 4. Motivates employees when they
believe that good job will result in
good outcomes
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 LO2.2:Types of Individual
Behavior (work related
behavior) in Organizations
generated by organizational 1.Task performance
members

2. Organizational
5. Maintaining Types of Citizenship
Attendance Work-Related Behaviour (OCB)
Behavior
3. Counter-
4. Joining/staying with
Productive
the organization
Behaviour (CWB)

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 LO2.2:Types of Individual Behavior (work related behaviour) in
Organizations generated by organizational members
1.TASK PERFORMANCE
2.ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR (OCB)

• Various forms of cooperation and

helpfulness to others that support the
organization’s social and psychological
context
• Behaviours that extend beyond the
employee’s normal job duties ,
performance standards and expectations,
such as:
 No selfish intent,
 Actively involved in organization’s activities
 Avoiding conflicts
 Performing tasks beyond normal role requirements
 Toleration 12
 LO2.2:Types of Individual Behavior (work related behaviour)
in Organizations generated by organizational members
3.COUNTER PRODUCTIVE WORK BEHAVIOUR
(CWB) 4. JOINING AND STAYING WITH THE ORGANIZATIONS

• Committed to organizations
• Voluntary behaviors that are
• Can be done when the Attracting and
potentially harmful to the retaining of talented people to join the
organization’s effectiveness…. organization, are derived through;
 Abuse of others  Reputable employer brand
 Sharing Congruent/similar values
 Threatening others
 Good remuneration/compensation
 Tardiness structure
 Sabotaging work  Viable Career Management structure
 Job satisfaction – a person’s evaluation
 Overt acts (theft) of his/ her job and work context
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5. Maintaining Work Attendance

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Maintaining Work • Employees who attend
Attendance work when they are unwell
•Presenteeism: may worsen their own
attending scheduled condition & increase health
work when one’s & safety risks of coworkers.
capacity to perform is
significantly • They tend to be less
diminished by illness, productive & may reduce
fatigue and other the productivity of
factors coworkers.
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 LO2.3- PERSONALITY IN
ORGANIZATIONS •the definition says that personality is stable over time?
How is this so? The answer is personality becomes stable
 Defined as the combination of
over time as we mature as individuals and have form a
stable physical & mental
clearer and more rigid SELF-CONCEPT of ourselves.
characteristics that give the
individual his or her identity. •An example, in a library for instance, with A BE QUIET
 OR sign enforced, a talkative person will suit his/her
 A relatively stable set of personality to be more quiet but it may not necessary
characteristics that influences an hinder him/her from talking. It’s just that he/she will do
individual’s behaviour the talking more quietly. He strongly believes in abiding
 OR to rules (his self-concept).
 A Relatively enduring pattern of •These characteristics or traits (sifat, sikap, kelakuan,
thoughts, emotions, and perangai) – including how one looks, thinks, acts & feels
behaviours that characterize a – are the product of interacting genetic &
person, along with the environmental influences. –
psychological processes behind
those characteristic that is stable – PERSONALITY DETERMINANTS – NEXT SLIDE
over time. 17
LO2.3.1- PERSONALITY DETERMINANTS– SOURCES
TO OUR PERSONALITY – NATURE AND NURTURE

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 LO2.3.2 Five Factor Model
Personality (FFM) – BIG FIVE
PERSONALITY TRAITS
MODEL
• The Big Five personality
traits, also known as the
five factor model (FFM), is a
model based on common
language descriptors
of personality. ...
• The five factors have
been defined as openness to
experience,
conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness,
and neuroticism, often
represented by the acronyms
OCEAN or CANOE.
• See next slide for the types of
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personality…….
Lo5 – Explain the big 5 personality dimension or the five factor
personality model or the CANOE model

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LO2.3.2 Five Factor Model Personality

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 EXTROVERSION AND NEUROTICISM
EXTROVERSION
• Extroversion, or positive affectivity, that
predisposes (prompts) individual to experience
positive emotional states and feel good about
themselves and about world around them.
• Extroverts-people high on the extraversion
scale-tend to be sociable, affectionate and
friendly. (outgoing, talkative, sociable, and
assertive)
• Introverts- people low on the extraversion scale-
are less likely to experience positive emotional
state and have fewer social interaction between
others. (quiet, shy, and cautious)
• People on low on introversion (extroverts) can
succeed in a variety of occupations . counterparts (high level of anxiety, hostile,
NEUROTICISM
• Neuroticism or negative affectivity, reflects
people’s tendency to experience negative
emotional state, feel distressed, and generally
view themselves and the world around them
negatively.
• Individual high on neuroticism are sometime
more critical of themselves and their
performance than are people low on
neuroticism.
• Individual low on neuroticism do not tend to
experience negative emotions and are not as
critical and pessimistic as their high-neuroticism
depression and self-conscious)
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 AGREEBLENESS AND CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
AGREEABLENESS
• Traits that captures the distinction between
individuals who get along well with other people
and those who do not.
• Likeability in general, and the ability to care for
others and to be affectionate, characterize
individuals who are high on agreeable .
(courteous, good natured, emphatic, and caring)
• Individual who low on agreeable are
antagonistic, mistrustful, unsympathetic,
uncooperative, and rude.
• Agreeable individuals generally are easy to get
along with and are “team player”.
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
• The extent to which an individual is careful, and
perseverance meticulous, dependable, self-
discipline)
• Individual high on conscientiousness are
organized and have a lot of self-discipline.
• Individual low on conscientiousness may lack
direction and self-discipline.
• Important in many organizational situations and
has been found to be a good predictor of
performance in many jobs in a wide variety of
organization.
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 OPENNESS to EXPERIENCES
• The extent to which an individual is
original, open to wide variety of
stimuli, has broad interests, and is
willing to take risks as opposed to
being narrow-minded and cautious.
• Creative and innovative behavior in
organizations, however organizations must
remove obstacles to innovations.
• As an advantages to the entrepreneurs
and in jobs that requires innovations,
organization also need people to perform
jobs that do not allow much opportunity
for independent thinking.
• Organization sometimes afraid to take
risks that workers high on openness to
experience may thrive on.
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 Five Factor Model and Behavior:
Further Information/issues
Effective leaders, salespeople are 1. Higher Big Five scores
somewhat more extravert
aren’t always better.
Openness to experience may predict
a creative work performance. 2. Specific traits may
Conscientiousness is a weak predict better than
predictor of adaptive, proactive overall Big Five factors.
performance.
3. Personality isn’t static.
Agreeableness:
• Predicts team member, customer service 4. The five-factor model
performance.
• Weak predictor of proficient, proactive doesn’t cover all
performance. personalities
© McGraw Hill
 The Dark Triads
Machiavellianism:
• Strong motivation to get what one
wants at the expense of others.
• Believe that deceit is natural and
acceptable to achieve goals.
• Take pleasure in misleading,
outwitting, controlling others.
• Seldom empathize with or trust
coworkers.
. fraudulent thrill-seeking behavior.
© McGraw Hill
Narcissism.
• Obsessive belief in one’s own superiority,
entitlement.
• Excessive need for attention.
• Intensely envious
Psychopathy.
• Social predators may ruthlessly dominate
and manipulate others.
• Mask of psychopathy: superficial charm,
but selfish self-promoters.
• Engage in antisocial, impulsive, and often
 Dark Triad and Workplace Behavior
1. Organizational politics.
• Using influence tactics for personal Dark triad may have some
gain at the expense of others and the
interests of the entire organization. positive outcomes?
2. Serious white-collar crime activity.
What is your opinion on
3. Workplace aggression or bullying
may be predicted by psychopathy. this?
4. Poor decision making may be
predicted by psychopathy.
5. Ineffective team behaviors
• Complex effect.

© McGraw Hill
 LO2.4 Values in the Workplace
definition

•Values are stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our

preferences for outcomes or courses of action in a Why is understanding value important? See next
variety of situations. slide

In short values: • Because it helps us to decide on

guide actions and judgments across a variety of which behaviours or means to
situation.
dictates our priorities, preferences and actions or
portray by which we achieve
motivation. desired ends or a personally
Moral compass – what is right, what is wrong, what is preferred ways of behaving …. See
good and what is bad. next slide for more
Examples of values are like being ambitious, • Illustration--- a person would
imaginative, obedient, self-controlled, respectful want an A for exam but the
whereas the outcomes are family security, sense of means to get an a varies from one
accomplishment, self-respect, social recognition and person to another. One may
exciting life and many more……
study hard, but another may opt
for cheating in exam. 28
LO2.4.2- values and individual behaviour
(Importance of understanding value)

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Additional importance
 Values affect the relative
attractiveness of choices.
 Values frame perceptions.
 Values motivate us to act
consistently with self-
concept and public image.
VALUE CONGRUENCE
• Similarity of a person’s values
hierarchy to another source.
• Importance of values congruence.
– Team values congruence
• higher team cohesion and
performance.
– Person–organization values
congruence
• higher job satisfaction, loyalty,
and organizational citizenship,
lower stress and turnover.
• SEE SLIDE 37 on this topic
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LO2.4.1 Types of Value – Schwartz’s Value Theory
(Shalom Scwhartz Value Theory)

• Based on Rokeach’s
model
• Human values are
organized into a circular
model (circumplex)
• Clusters 57 specific
values into 10 broad
values categories.
• The 10 categories are
clustered into 4
quadrants 31
 LO2.4.1: the Schwartz’s Values Model- the 4 quadrants

• Openness to change –
motivation to pursue innovative
ways
• Conservation (preserve) --
motivation to preserve the status
quo
• Self-enhancement -- motivated
by self-interest ……selfishness
• Self-transcendence -- motivation
to promote welfare of others and
nature
2-32
the Schwartz’s Values Model- the 4 quadrants

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the Schwartz’s Values Model- the 10 categories

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 LO2.4.2 –
value and individual behaviour
(Explain Value Conflicts)
Value conflict is a difference of opinion created by
differences in long-held beliefs and word views.
The conflict cannot be easily resolved with facts
because the differences are belief-based and not
fact-based.

A person may experience value conflicts and

there are several types of value conflicts :
 intrapersonal value conflict
between oneself
 individual organization value
conflict – between oneself and organization
 interpersonal value conflict-
between oneself and another Next slide for explanation
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 Intrapersonal conflict
Continue…….types of value conflict.
Interpersonal conflict
When highly ranked
instrumental & terminal Often at the core of personality conflicts.
values pull the individual in Just as people have different styles that may @
different directions, inner may not mesh, they also embrace unique
conflict & resultant stress combinations of instrumental & terminal values that
typically are experienced. inevitably spark disagreement with one another
Intrapersonal value conflict
involves internal priorities Individual organization conflict
Eg. For employees who want Conflict can occur when values espoused & enacted by the
balance in their lives, a organization collide with employees’ personal values.
stressful conflict arises when
one values “being ambitious”
(instrumental value) &
“ending up happy” (terminal
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value).
 LO2.4.3- Value Congruence
• Value congruence means how similar a
person’s values hierarchy is to the values
hierarchy of the organization, a co worker @
another source of comparison.
• Person-organization values congruence
occurs when a person’s values are similar to
the organization’s dominant values.
• Leads to higher job satisfaction, loyalty &
organizational citizenship as well as lower stress &
turnover.
Types of value congruence- Espoused-enacted
value congruence involves how consistent the
values apparent in our actions (enacted values)
are with what we say we believe in (espoused
values).
Especially important for people in leadership
positions because any obvious gap between
espoused & enacted values undermines their
perceived integrity.
Problems with incongruence
Incompatible decisions
Lower satisfaction and loyalty
Higher stress and turnover
Constructive conflict, better decision making
Benefits of incongruence
Avoids ‘corporate cults’(group) that undermine
(slow down) creativity, flexibility & business ethics
Organization-community values
congruence refers to the similarity of an
organization’s dominant values with the
prevailing values of the community @
society in which it conducts business.
Global organizations may experience higher
employee turnover & difficult community
relations if they try to impose their home
country’s values in other cultures where they
do business
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 summary
Construct a mind map of this chapter

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Extra notes

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 SELF CONCEPT / SELF ESTEEMS
SELF CONCEPT
• Awareness of self
• The concept the individual has of
himself as a physical, social &
spiritual @ moral being
• A self concept would be impossible
without the capacity to think which
lead to the role of cognitions.
• Cognitions represent “any
knowledge, opinion or belief about
the environment, about oneself @
about one’s behaviour”.
SELF ESTEEMS
 A belief about one’s own self-worth based on an
overall self-evaluation.
 Measured by having survey respondents indicate
their agreement or disagreement with both positive
& negative statements.
 Sorensen_Self-Esteem_Test.pdf
 Those who agree with the positive statements &
disagree with the negative statements have high self-
esteem.
 They see themselves as worthwhile, capable &
acceptable.
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 SELF-EFFICACY

SELF EFFICACY SOURCES OF SELF EFFICACY

• 4 sources of self-efficacy beliefs are prior

• A person’s belief about his @ her experience, behavior models,
chances of successfully persuasion from others & assessment of
accomplishing a specific task. one’s physical & emotional states.
• Those with high self-efficacy have • High self-efficacy beliefs foster
a “can-do” attitude. constructive & goal-oriented action,
• They believe they possess the whereas
energy (motivation), ability, clear • low self-efficacy fosters passive, failure-
expectations (role perceptions) & prone activities & emotions.
resources (situational factors) to
perform the task.

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 SELF-MONITORING
The extent to which a • There are two types:
• High self-monitors easily
person observes their blend into social situations,
knowing what to do or say
own self-expressive with each person
behavior & adapts it • Low self-monitors are less
to the demands of sensitive to social cues, and
less likely to change their
the situation. behavior from one situation
to another

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 DEFINE ABILITY
 Represents a broad & stable characteristic responsible for a person’s maximum performance on mental
& physical tasks.
 2 types of ability :

Types Explanation
General General mental ability needed for all
cognitive tasks

Unique Unique to the task at hand

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 DEFINE
EMOTIONS

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people’s emotions -
behavioural

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TYPES OF EMOTIONS
- Positive and Negative
Emotions

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Types of
Emotions

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 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EI)
DEFINED, ITS MODEL,AND
COMPETENCIES
 Ability to perceive and express emotion,
assimilate emotion in thought, understand and
reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in
oneself and others
 The ability to manage oneself & one’s
relationships in mature & constructive ways.
 A set of abilities to perceive and express
emotion, assimilate emotion in thought,
understand and reason with emotion, and
regulate emotion in oneself and others.

 Individuals with high level of emotional stability

tend to be relaxed, secure, unworried, and less
likely to experience negative emotions under
pressure.
 Those with low level are prone to anxiety and
tend to view the world negatively.

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Model of Emotional Intelligence (EI)

Highest Relationship
Managing other people’s emotions
management

Perceiving and understanding the

Social awareness meaning of others’ emotions

Self-management Managing our own emotions

Perceiving and understanding the

Self-awareness meaning of your own emotions
Lowest

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 EI
COMPETENCIES

Personal Competence: These

capabilities determine how we manage
ourselves.
Self-awareness slide before
Self-management

Social Competence: These capabilities

determine how we manage
relationships.
Social awareness
Relationship management slide before

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 Self management and self awareness
Self-management Self-awareness
• Achievement: The drive • Accurate self-assessment:
Knowing one’s strengths &
to improve performance limits
to meet inner standards • Emotional self-awareness:
of excellence Reading one’s own emotions
& recognizing their impact;
• Initiative: Readiness to using “gut sense” to guide
act & seize opportunities decisions.
• Optimism: Seeing the • Self-confidence: A sound
sense of one’s self-worth &
upside in events capabilities

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 SOCIAL AWARENESS AND RELATIONSHIP
MANAGEMENT
•Social
Empathy: Sensing others’
Awareness
emotions, understanding
their perspectives & taking
active interest in their
concerns.
• Organizational awareness:
Reading the currents,
decision networks & politics
at the organizational level
• Service: Recognizing &
meeting follower, client @
customer needs
Relationship
Management
• Inspirational leadership: Guiding & motivating with a
compelling vision
• Influence: Wielding a range of tactics for persuasion
• Developing others: Bolstering others’ abilities through
feedback & guidance
• Change catalyst: Initiating, managing & leading in a new
direction
• Conflict management: Resolving disagreements
• Building bonds: Cultivating & maintaining a web of
relationships
• Teamwork & collaboration: Cooperation & team building
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