Midbrain

(“mesencephalon”)

• One inch in length

• Extends from pons
to diencephalon
• Cerebral aqueduct
connects 3rd
ventricle above to
4th ventricle below
Structures of the
Mesencephalon
• Tectum:
• 2 pairs of sensory nuclei (corpora
quadrigemina):
▫ superior colliculus (visual)
▫ inferior colliculus (auditory)
Relationship of mesencephalon to pons
and cerebellum
Structures of the
Mesencephalon
• Tegmentum:
▫ red nucleus (many blood vessels)
▫ substantia nigra (pigmented gray matter)
Structures of the
Mesencephalon
• Cerebral peduncles:
▫ nerve fiber bundles on ventrolateral surfaces
▫ contain:
 descending fibers to cerebellum
 motor command (pyramidal) fibers
 Mesencephalon in Section

• Red nucleus-- rich blood supply & iron-containing pigment

• Substantia nigra---helps controls subconscious muscle
activity
▫ cortex & cerebellum coordinate muscular movements by sending
information here from the cortex and cerebellum
• Cerebral peduncles---clusters of motor & sensory fibers
The Mesencephalon

Figure 14–8a
Midbrain
(“mesencephalon” of the brainstem)
Summary: The Mesencephalon

Table 14-4
 Reticular Formation
(Don’t forget this diffuse structure!)

Motor function: helps regulate muscle movements

Sensory function: Reticular activating system (RAS)
Stimulation  increased cortical activity
Inactivation  sleep
Reticular Activating
• RAS filters out System
repetitive, weak, irrelevant
stimuli.
• LSD removes the filtering effect  sensory-
overload.

Head Trauma (eg., lightweight boxers)

 concussion (mild, transient loss of
consciousness)
 coma (loss of consciousness, hours to
lifetime).
The Cerebellum

Figure 14–7a
 Cerebellum
1.Adjusts
postural
muscles
2.Fine-tunes
conscious and
subconscious
movements
Cerebellar
• Three paired Peduncles
fiber tracts
• Superior peduncles connect the cerebellum to the
midbrain
• Middle peduncles connect the pons to the
cerebellum
• Inferior peduncles connect the medulla to the
cerebellum and carry ascending and descending
cerebellar tracts from the spinal cord.
• All fibers in the cerebellum are ipsilateral
Structures of the Cerebellum

Figure 14–7b
Cerebellum
Arbor Vitae
Arbor Vitae
• Highly branched, internal white matter of
cerebellum
• Cerebellar nuclei:
▫ embedded in arbor vitae
▫ relay information to Purkinje cells
Purkinje Cells
• Large, branched cells
• Found in cerebellar cortex
• Receive input from up to 200,000 synapses
Disorders of the
Cerebellum
• Ataxia:
▫ damage from trauma or
stroke
▫ intoxication (temporary
disturbance)
▫ disturbs muscle
coordination
Summary: The Cerebellum

Table 14-3
What are the main components of
the diencephalon
and their functions?
The Diencephalon
• Integrates sensory
information and motor
commands

• Filters ascending sensory

information for primary sensory
cortex
• Relays information between basal
nuclei and cerebral cortex

Figure 14–5a
The Diencephalon
• Thalamus,
epithalamus, and
hypothalamus

Figure 14–9
The Third Ventricle
• Separates left thalamus and right thalamus
• Intermediate mass:
▫ projection of gray matter
▫ extends into ventricle from each side
Thalamic Nuclei
• Lateral geniculate nucleus: relays visual
information
• Medial geniculate nucleus: relays auditory
information
• Lateral group: involved in emotional states and
integration of sensory information
Summary: Thalamic Nuclei

Table 14-5
Hypothalamus

• Located below the thalamus

it caps the brainstem and
forms the inferolateral walls
of the third ventricle
• Mammillary bodies
▫ Small, paired nuclei;
Relay station for olfactory pathways
▫ control reflex eating movements
• Infundibulum – stalk of the hypothalamus;
connects to the pituitary gland
Diencephalon

The Diencephalon
Hypothalamus
The Hypothalamus
• Lies below thalamus

Figure 14–10a
8 Functions of the Hypothalamus
1. Provides subconscious control of skeletal
muscle
2. Controls autonomic function
3. Coordinates activities of nervous and
endocrine systems
Functions of the Hypothalamus
4. Secretes hormones:
▫ antidiuretic hormone (ADH) by supraoptic
nucleus
▫ oxytocin (OT) by paraventricular nucleus
Functions of the Hypothalamus
5. Produces emotions and behavioral drives:
▫ the feeding center (hunger)
▫ the thirst center (thirst)
Functions of the Hypothalamus
6. Coordinates voluntary and autonomic
functions
7. Regulates body temperature:
▫ preoptic area of hypothalamus
Functions of the Hypothalamus
8. Controls circadian rhythms (day–night cycles):
▫ suprachiasmatic nucleus
Summary: The Hypothalamus

Table 14-6
 Pineal Gland
Epithalamus

• Above the thalamus

• Pineal gland
▫ secretes melatonin:
a hormone involved with sleep regulation, sleep-
wake cycles, and mood
Blood Brain Barrier – details to know
Break-Down
radiation, infection, neoplasm (cancer), manitol
(intentional disruption)

facilitated diffusion
glucose, amino acids

simple diffusion
Small, neutrally charged molecules (i.e., lipid soluble
molecules) pass easily.
• Water, CO2, O2,
• alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, heroin
• “general” anesthetics
Brain Blood Flow
Sources:
2 internal carotids (R and L)
2 vertebral arteries and “Circle of Willis”
(Study in more detail in lab.)

14% of cardiac output, and uses 20% of oxygen

used by body
Brain Blood
Flow
Brain Blood Flow
Flow depends on CO2 more than O2 concentration
• High CO2  increased blood flow
• Low CO2  decreased blood flow

Hyperventilation  blow off CO2  low blood flow

 dizzy spell

Other Factors: extreme blood pressures

intracranial pressure
blood viscosity
Brain Blood Flow: Clinical Issues
• Low blood sugar (eg., too much insulin) starves
neurons
• Mass (tumor, blood clot)  decreased flow
• Heart attack  decreased flow and confusion
• 10 seconds without blood  pass out
• 4 minutes  permanent brain damage
 lysosomes release enzymes
Medical Example:
Subdural Hematoma
An subdural hematoma
is a blood collection
Between the dura and
arachnoid mater
(external to the brain)
Since the skull cannot
expand, the brain shifts
across the midline.
Clinical Cases:
Bleeding in the Brain

• Epidural Bleed

• Subdural Hematoma

• Intraparenchymal
Bleed
Clinical Cases:
Bleeding in the Brain

• Epidural Bleed

• Subdural Hematoma

• Intraparenchymal
Bleed
Clinical Cases:
Bleeding in the Brain

• Epidural Bleed

• Subdural Hematoma

• Intraparenchymal
Bleed(s)
 Medical
Examples

• Meningitis is
inflammation of the
meninges due to
bacterial or viral
infection.

• Encephalitis is
inflammation of the
brain
Parkinson’s Disease
• Unknown cause.

• Basal ganglia involved.

• Tremor, rigidity.

• New therapy….
 Basal Ganglia

• Connections to red nucleus, substantia nigra &

subthalamus
• Input & output with cerebral cortex, thalamus &
hypothalamus
• Control large automatic movements of skeletal muscles
The Electroencephalogram

Figure 14–17
Seizure
• Is a temporary cerebral disorder
• Changes the electroencephalogram
• Symptoms depend on regions affected
4 Categories of Brain Waves
1. Alpha waves:
▫ found in healthy, awake adults at rest with eyes
closed
2. Beta waves:
▫ higher frequency
▫ found in adults concentrating or mentally
stressed
4 Categories of Brain Waves
3. Theta waves:
▫ found in children
▫ found in intensely frustrated adults
▫ may indicate brain disorder in adults
4. Delta waves:
▫ during sleep
▫ found in awake adults with brain damage
Synchronization
• A pacemaker mechanism:
▫ synchronizes electrical activity between
hemispheres
• Brain damage can cause desynchronization