REFRIGERATION

SYSTEMS
 Topics
• Introduction
• Reversed Heat Engine Cycle
• Performance of Refrigeration Cycle and Heat Pump
• The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
• The Practical Refrigeration Cycle
• Refrigeration Load
• Flash Chamber
• Multistage Compression Refrigeration System
• Absorption Refrigeration Systems
2
 Introduction
• A refrigerator is a heat engine in which work is done on a refrigerant
substance in order to collect energy from a cold region and exhaust it in
a higher temperature region, thereby further cooling the cold region.
• 2’nd Law of Thermodynamics (The Clausius statement)
– “it is impossible for heat to flow from a colder body to a warmer
body without any work having been done to accomplish this flow”

3
 Refrigerators And Heat Pumps
• Heat engines use heat to produce work.
• Reversed heat engines use work to remove heat.
• Refrigerators maintain cold space by removing heat from it to a
high-temperature region
• Refrigerants are used as working fluid
• Heat pumps maintain a hot space by absorbing heat from a low
temperature-region
• Coefficient of Performance (COP) is the criteria used to measure
the performance of refrigerators & heat pumps

4
 cooling effect QL Q L
COPR   
work input Win W in

5
MAINTAINED WARM
ENVIRONMENT
(T1)

Q1/QH (Heating Effect)

win
HEAT PUMP

Q2/QL

heating effect QH Q H
(T2) COPHP    
COLD work input Win Win
ENVIRONMENT

Heat Pump 6
• From 1st Law of thermodynamics
 ∑dQ=∑dW;
 The net work input to the system,W=W12-W34
 The net heat rejected by the system;Q=Q2-Q1

Q H  QL  Win
• QH Q L  Win
•
If COPR is positive, then COPHP > 1
The rate of heat removal from a system isW

Win
called cooling capacity.
in
• Cooling capacity is normally measured in tons of refrigeration
• QL
COPHP  1
1 ton = 211 kJ/min

Win
COPHP  COPR  1

7
 Carnot Reversed Heat Engine Cycle
• The most efficient heat engine is represented by the Carnot cycle.
(Remember that Carnot cycle is reversible)
• A reversed heat engine is represented by Carnot cycle which
operates in a reversed direction
• This cycle is called a reversed Carnot cycle
• A refrigerator/heat pump using this cycle is called Carnot
refrigerator/Carnot heat pump
• Its function is to remove heat from a low-temperature region to a
high-temperature region.

8
 • (1 – 2)- Wet vapor enters pump and is pumped
QH (Isentropic). Temperature is increased
3 2 • (2 – 3) - Vapor is condensed at constant
Condenser
temperature. Heat rejected by refrigerant
• (3 – 4) - Isentropic expansion (Isentropic).
Turbine Pump Temperature is reduced
• (4 – 1) - Heat for evaporation process is
4 Evaporator 1 supplied from cold source in evaporator at
Plant layout for constant temperature.
Reversed Carnot Q T
Cycle
L
QH
T-s Diagram
2 with saturation
W3
line of
Refrigerant

4 1
QL 9
s
 Example

A refrigerator operates between evaporator

temperature and condenser temperature of -30oC and
35oC respectively. Calculate the maximum possible COPR.
If the COPR for actual refrigerator is 80% of ideal
refrigerator, calculate the power required for a cooling
effect of 5kW.

10
 Reversed Carnot Cycle
• The reversed Carnot Cycle is the most efficient refrigeration cycle
operating between two fixed temperatures
• This cycle is impractical because,
– In process (1 – 2) it is difficult to compress liquid-vapor mixture
– In process (3 – 4) it is difficult to expand high-moisture-content
refrigerant.
• Reversed Carnot cycle is only for comparison with the actual
refrigeration cycles

11
 The Ideal Vapor-compression Cycle
• To make the cycle practical;
– the refrigerant is vaporized completely before compression
– The expansion engine (turbine) is replaced by a throttle valve
(expansion with no enthalpy change)
• Since compression process is carried out in vapor state, the cycle is
then called the Vapor-Compression Cycle
• This type of cycle is commonly used in domestic refrigerators and air
conditioning systems.
Condenser
3 2
Expansion Valve Win

4 Evaporator 1
12
 Process Of Vapor-compression
•
•
Cycle
(1 – 2)-Isentropic compression until vapor is superheated
(2 – 3)-Constant pressure heat rejection in condenser
• (3 – 4)-Throttling in an expansion device
• (4 – 1)-Constant pressure heat absorption in an evaporator

T
(K)
2

4 1

s(kJ/kgK 13
 THE IDEAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION
CYCLE
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the ideal model for refrigeration
systems. Unlike the reversed Carnot cycle, the refrigerant is vaporized completely
before it is compressed and the turbine is replaced with a throttling device.

This is the most

widely used cycle
for refrigerators, A-
C systems, and heat
pumps.

Schematic and T-s

diagram for the ideal
vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle. 14
The ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle involves an irreversible
(throttling) process to make it a more realistic model for the actual systems.
Replacing the expansion valve by a turbine is not practical since the added
benefits cannot justify the added cost and complexity.
Steady-flow
energy balance

An ordinary
household
refrigerator.

The P-h diagram of an ideal vapor-

compression refrigeration cycle. 15
 Process Of Vapor-compression Cycle
• From S.F.E.E: ∑dQ=∑dW ;h1+Q=h2+W
Apply Process 4-1;Evaparotar
• qL=(h1-h4)=Refrigeration Effect
Apply Process 1-2:Compressor
• W=Work done on the refrigerant=+(h2-h1)
If the process is reversible and adiabatic, then it is isentropic; apply process 2-
3;Condensor
• qH=(h2-h3)=Heat rejected by the refrigerant =+(h2-h3)
Apply Process 3-4; Engine/Turbine
• W=h4-h3: in this case the expansion engine replaced by throttle valve, so W=0;
• h3=h4

16
Process Of Vapor-compression Cycle
Condenser
3 2

Expansio Win
n Valve

4 Evaporator 1

T
3 2
QH
Win

4 1
QL
17
s
 Example
A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working
fluid and operates on an ideal vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle between 0.12 and 0.7 MPa at a
rate of 0.5 m3/min. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram
with respect to saturation lines. Determine (a) the
rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space
and the power input to the compressor, (b) the rate
of heat rejection to the environment, and (c) the
coefficient of performance. Answers: (a) 7.41 kW,
1.83 kW, (b) 9.23 kW, (c) 4.06
18
 P-h Diagram
• 2 methods can be used for cycle analysis.
– Using property table for refrigerants
– Using the P-h diagram

nt
q2 = h 2 – h 3

nsta
s co
3 2

ant
v c o ns t
t
tan

4
s

1
on

q2 = h 1 – h 4
xc

h
win = h2 – h1 19
P-h Diagram for Refrigerant 134a
20
 Example
A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working
fluid and operates on an ideal vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle between 0.12 and 0.9 MPa. The
mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.05 kg/s. Show
the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation
lines. Determine (a) the rate of heat removal from
the refrigerated space and the power input to the
compressor, (b) the rate of heat rejection to the
environment, and (c) the coefficient of performance.
21
 Refrigeration Load
• Refrigeration Capacity, Q L
– defined as the amount of heat that has to be transferred from a cold
space per unit time
– determines the mass flow rate of refrigerant
• 1 ton = 200Btu/min = 211kJ/min = 3.516kW
• ton : “the rate of heat transfer to produce 2000 lb of ice at 0oC (32o)F
from liquid water at 0oC (32oF) in 24 hours”
• Mass flow rate of refrigerant
  refrigerator capacity
m
refrigerating effect per unit mass

22
 Example
Calculate the refrigerating capacity of the refrigerator in unit ton if given
the enthalpy at the outlet and inlet of the evaporator, and the mass flow
rate are 179.01 kJ/kg, 60.58 kJ/kg and 0.05 kg/s respectively.

Given,
m  0.05 kg s
 0.05  60  3.0 kg min
So,
Q  m  h1  h4 
 3.0 kg min 179.01  60.58 kJ kg
1ton
 355.29 kJ min 
211 kJ min
 1.684ton

23
 Undercooling (Subcooling) And Its Effects
In the condenser, the vapor can be further cooled at
constant pressure to a temperature that is lower
than temperature in condenser

T 3
2

3’
Cooling water
temperature

4 4’ 1

s
24
 Undercooling (Subcooling) And Its Effects

• Undercooling (subcooling) increases the refrigerating effect

(h1 – h4) > (h1 – h4’) where h4 is enthalpy with undercooling (subcooling)
and h4’ is initial enthalpy
• Undercooling (subcooling) is limited by temperature of cooling
water and temperature difference of cycle
T
2

3’
3 Cooling water
temperature

4 4’ 1

s 25
 The Practical Vapor-compression
Cycles
• Because of the irreversible nature of most processes of the cycle,
the actual cycle deviates from actual cycle.
• Source of irreversibilities
– Pressure drop in fluid
– Heat transfer with surroundings
• It is difficult to get saturated vapor at compressor inlet. So in
practice the refrigerant is slightly superheated at compressor inlet.
• It is also difficult to get saturated liquid at condenser exit. So in
practice undercooling (subcooling) (3 – 3a)is used.

26
 The Practical Vapor-compression
Cycles
Pressure drop occurs in:

(1 – 1a): line connecting

evaporator and compressor
(2 – 3): within condenser
(4 – 4a): line between expansion
valve and evaporator
(4a – 1): within evaporator

• During actual compression, entropy might increase or decrease.

27
(Point 2 might be somewhere between 2a and 2b)
 Example
Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a
refrigerator as superheated vapor at 0.14MPa and
-10°C at a rate of 0.05 kg/s and leaves at 0.8 MPa and
50°C. The refrigerant is cooled in the condenser to 26°C
and 0.72 MPa and is throttled to 0.15 MPa.
Disregarding any heat transfer and pressure drops in
the connecting lines between the components,
determine (a) the rate of heat removal from the
refrigerated space and the power input to the
compressor, (b) the isentropic efficiency of the
compressor, and (c) the coefficient of performance of
28
the refrigerator.
 Example
Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator as
superheated vapor at 0.1 MPa and -20°C at a rate of 0.04
kg/s, and it leaves at 0.8 MPa. The isentropic efficiency of
the compressor is 78 percent. The refrigerant is cooled in
the condenser to 26°C and 0.75 MPa, and leaves the
evaporator as saturated vapor at -26°C. Disregarding any
heat transfer and pressure drops in the connecting lines
between the components, show the cycle on a T-s diagram
with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the rate
of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the power
input to the compressor, (b) the COP of the refrigerator, and
(c) the pressure drop and rate of heat gain in the line
29
between the evaporator and the compressor.
 SELECTING THE RIGHT REFRIGERANT
• Several refrigerants may be used in refrigeration systems such as chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), ammonia, hydrocarbons (propane, ethane, ethylene, etc.), carbon dioxide, air (in the
air-conditioning of aircraft), and even water (in applications above the freezing point).
• R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134a, and R-502 account for over 90 percent of the market.
• The industrial and heavy-commercial sectors use ammonia (it is toxic).
• R-11 is used in large-capacity water chillers serving A-C systems in buildings.
• R-134a (replaced R-12, which damages ozone layer) is used in domestic refrigerators and
freezers, as well as automotive air conditioners.
• R-22 is used in window air conditioners, heat pumps, air conditioners of commercial
buildings, and large industrial refrigeration systems, and offers strong competition to
ammonia.
• R-502 (a blend of R-115 and R-22) is the dominant refrigerant used in commercial
refrigeration systems such as those in supermarkets.
• CFCs allow more ultraviolet radiation into the earth’s atmosphere by destroying the
protective ozone layer and thus contributing to the greenhouse effect that causes global
warming. Fully halogenated CFCs (such as R-11, R-12, and R-115) do the most damage to
the ozone layer. Refrigerants that are friendly to the ozone layer have been developed.
• Two important parameters that need to be considered in the selection of a refrigerant are
the temperatures of the two media (the refrigerated space and the environment) 30 with
which the refrigerant exchanges heat.
 INNOVATIVE VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
• The simple vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used
refrigeration cycle, and it is adequate for most refrigeration applications.
• The ordinary vapor-compression refrigeration systems are simple,
inexpensive, reliable, and practically maintenance-free.
• However, for large industrial applications efficiency, not simplicity, is the
major concern.
• Also, for some applications the simple vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is
inadequate and needs to be modified.
• For moderately and very low temperature applications some innovative
refrigeration systems are used. The following cycles will be discussed:
• Cascade refrigeration systems
• Multistage compression refrigeration systems
• Multipurpose refrigeration systems with a single compressor
• Liquefaction of gases 31
 Cascade Refrigeration System
• A refrigeration process can be carried out in stages
• We call refrigeration cycles that operate in series as cascade
refrigeration cycles
• We will look at a two-stage cascade refrigeration system
• A heat exchanger will serve as an evaporator for one cycle
and a condenser for another

32
 QH
6
Condenser
7
Win
Expansion
A Valve
Heat
Exchanger Compressor
5

8
2

3
Win
Expansion
Valve
B Compressor
1
Evaporator
4

QL
Cycle Layout of a Two-Stage Cascade System
33
 The Process
• The heat exchanger connects cycle A with cycle B
• For cycle A, the heat exchanger acts as condenser
• For cycle B, the heat exchanger acts as the evaporator
• Assumptions
– Heat exchanger is insulated
– Kinetic & potential energy is negligible
– Same refrigerant is used in both cycles
• So heat leaving condenser in A is equal to heat entering
absorbed by evaporator
Q 
in BQ
A B

m A  h5  h8   m B  h2  h3 
m A

 h 2  h3 
m B  h5  h8  34
 Cascade Refrigeration Systems
Some industrial applications require moderately low temperatures, and the temperature range
they involve may be too large for a single vapor-compression refrigeration cycle to be practical.
The solution is cascading.

Cascading
improves the
COP of a
refrigeration
system.
Some systems
use three or four
stages of
cascading.

A two-stage cascade refrigeration system with the same

35
refrigerant in both stages.
• Refrigeration Coefficient of Performance for the system:

QL
COPR 
Win
m B  h1  h4 

m A  h6  h5   m  h2  h1 

36
 T-s And P-h Diagram Of The Cascade
Refrigeration System

T P
6
7 6

7 2 A
A 5
3 8 5 2
3 8

B
B
4 1 4 1

s
h

37
 Characteristics Of Cascade System
• In a cascade system, no mixing of refrigerant takes place in the
heat exchanger,
– so no mixing of refrigerant between cycles,
– so different refrigerants can be used
• Using a cascade system
– Increases the refrigeration capacity
– Decreases compressor work
– So COPR increases
• In practice the working fluid of the lower cycle will be at a
higher pressure and temperature in the heat exchanger for
effective heat transfer
38
 Example
Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating
between the pressure limits of 0.8 and 0.14 MPa. Each stage
operates on the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle
with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. Heat rejection
from the lower cycle to the upper cycle takes place in an
adiabatic counterflow heat exchanger where both streams
enter at about 0.4 MPa. If the mass flow rate of the
Refrigerant through the upper circle is 0.24 kg/s, determine
(a) the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower
cycle, (b) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated
space and the power input to the compressor, and (c) the
coefficient of performance of this cascade refrigerator.
39
Answers: (a) 0.195 kg/s, (b) 34.2 kW, 7.63 kW, (c) 4.49
Multistage Compression When the fluid used throughout the cascade
Refrigeration Systems refrigeration system is the same, the heat exchanger
between the stages can be replaced by a mixing
chamber (called a flash chamber) since it has better
heat transfer characteristics.

A two-stage compression refrigeration system

with a flash chamber.
 Flash Chamber
• Flash chamber is used in a multi-staging refrigeration
system
• It separates vapor and liquid refrigerant during the
throttling process
• The purpose is to avoid vapor refrigerants from entering
evaporator
• The vapor developed during throttling (flash vapor) is bled
out of the throttling device and fed back to the compressor

41
 Multistage Compression
Refrigeration System
• A multistage compression QH
refrigeration system is Condenser
one example of a system 5 4
use a flash chamber Expansio
Win

• It can be carried out with n Valve

6 9
one or more compressors Flash Chamber 3

7 2 Win
Expansio
n Valve
8 1
Evaporator
4
QL
Cycle Layout of a Two-Stage Compression
Refrigeration System 42
 T-s Diagram
• The T-s diagram representing the cycle of a two-stage vapor-compression
cycle
T 4

5 2

7 9
6 3

8 1

43
 Two-stage Refrigeration Cycle
Represented By The P-h Diagram
• The P-h diagram is a more convenient representation of the cycle
because it can easily be compared to the plant layout

5 Condenser 4

Flash Chamber 3 2
7 6 9

Evaporator
8 1

h 44
• 1kg refrigerant starts his journey through
condenser
• 1kg liquid enters 1st throttle valve
• 1kg (mostly liquid) enters flash chamber
starts to evaporate and becomes mixture of
gas (x)kg and liquid (1–x)kg
• (x) leaves early and is ready to enter 2nd
P
stage compressor at Pi
• (1–x)kg liquid make its way through the 2 nd 5 Condenser 4
throttle valve into the evaporator
• (1–x)kg vapor enters the 1st stage 3 2
7 6 9
compressor where it is compressed to Pi
• At Pi (state 3) (1-x)kg vapor mixes with (x)kg Evaporator
vapor adiabatically and becomes 1kg vapor 8 1

• 1kg vapor is compressed in 2nd stage h

compressor
• 1kg vapor enters condenser to be
condensed and becomes 1kg liquid
45
 Analysis
• Fraction of refrigerant which evaporates in the flash chamber
can be given as follows. h6  hfi
x 
hfg i

• Refrigerating Effect, QL= (1 – x)(h1 – h8)

• Total work input, ∑Win = W12 + W94

= (1 – x)(h2 – h1) + (h4 – h9)
• Heat rejected in condenser
QH = (h4 – h5)
• Coefficient of Performance QL
COPR 
 Win

1  x  h1  h8  46
1  x  h 2 h1    h4  h9 
 Example
Consider a two-stage compression refrigeration system operating
between the pressure limits of 0.8 and 0.14 MPa. The working fluid is
refrigerant-134a. The refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated
liquid and is throttled to a flash chamber operating at 0.4 MPa. Part of
the refrigerant evaporates during this flashing process, and this vapor
is mixed with the refrigerant leaving the low-pressure compressor. The
mixture is then compressed to the condenser pressure by the high-
pressure compressor. The liquid in the flash chamber is throttled to the
evaporator pressure, and it cools the refrigerated space as it vaporizes
in the evaporator. Assuming the refrigerant leaves the evaporator as
saturated Vapor and both compressors are isotropic, determine (a) the
fraction of the refrigerant that evaporates as it is throttled to the flash
chamber, (b) the amount of heat removed from the refrigerated space
and the compressor work per unit mass of refrigerant flowing through
47 (b)
the condenser, and (c) the coefficient of performance. Answers: (a) 0.165,
146.4 kJ/kg, 32.6 kJ/kg, (c) 4.49
 Absorption & Gas Refrigeration System
Absorption Refrigeration System

• Introduced because:
– saves energy
– uses environmental friendly refrigerant
• Types of absorption refrigeration systems
– Ammonia-Water
– Water-Lithium bromide
• The system is similar to a vapor-compression system except that the
compressor is replaced by an absorption system
• Refrigerant is absorbed by a transport medium through the absorbing
system

48
 System Layout Of An Ammonia-
water Absorption System
QH
Generator QGenerator
Condenser Rectifier NH3 + H2O
NH3 Note:
An identical
H2O layout is used for
the water-
Expansion
ammonia
Valve absorption system
Expansion
Valve
Pump
Win, Pump
NH3 Absorber
Evaporator NH3 + H2O

QL
Cooling water

Absorption system
49
 Process In The Absorption
System
• Take an Ammonia-Water system as an example. Here, Ammonia is the
refrigerant and water is the absorber.
• In the case of water-lithium bromide system, water is the refrigerant
and lithium bromide is the absorber.
• NH3 from evaporator enters the absorber. It reacts with cooling water
and releases heat to form NH3 + H2O solution
• The NH3 + H2O is pumped to generator. Heat is transferred to NH 3 + H2O
to vaporize it
• Then it is passed to the rectifier to separate NH3 and H2O
• High pressure NH3 in rectifier goes to condenser
• H2O & the rest of NH3 is passed through a regenerator. It transfers heat
to the solution rich with NH3 that is on its way to the generator
• Then it is throttled back to the absorber

50