Lecture II

CHEMICAL BONDING

Invited specialist
PhD Tamriko Supatashvili
2019
 Why atoms form bonds
• Electrons are in energy levels around the
nucleus (electron cloud).
• The higher the energy level, the more energy is
required for an electron to occupy that part of
the cloud.
• The outermost part of the electron cloud
contains the valence electrons – that is the
valence shell.
• Maximum number of valence electrons in an
atom is 8.
 • Atoms are stable when
they have 8 valence
electrons.
• When the atoms have 8
electrons, it is called an
octet.
• Atoms must lose, gain
or share electrons to
attain the octet.

 Atoms that form bonds with other atoms by sharing them or

transferring them is known as the Octet Rule.
 Chemical bonding
• IONIC BONDS
• COVALENT BONDS
• HYDROGEN BONDS
• METALLIC BONDS
There is always an exception!

• Hydrogen and Helium

• Hydrogen needs only one
more to fill its valence
shell.
• Helium has a full valence
shell – it is stable and does
not bond with other atoms.
 Bond…. Chemical Bonds
Ionic Bonds
•They are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons.
•If the compound has a metal, then it is an ionic
bond.
•Ex.

xx

Na Cl x x
x
xx
 Ionization
• When atoms gain or lose an electron, they
become an ion.
• A Na atom has 11 positively charged protons
and 11 negatively charged electrons.
• When it loses 1 electron to become more stable, it has 11 protons
(+) and 10 electrons (-) and has a +1 charge.
• Cl has 17 protons.
• When Cl gains 1 electron to complete the octet, it has 17 protons
(+) and 18 electrons (-).
• It is now an ion with a –1 charge.
 Opposites Attract

• Since the Na has a + charge and the Cl has

a – charge, the two atoms are attracted
together and form an ionic bond.
• They have a 1:1 ratio when they
combine…..
 Covalent Bonds
• Atoms that share electrons form covalent
bonds.
• If the atoms have a covalent bond and are
the same type of atom…. They are diatomic
molecules.
• Ex. xx xx
x
x Cl
xx
x
x Cl
x
x
xx
Element Bonding Formula

Hydrogen H-H H2
Oxygen O-O O2
Nitrogen N-N N2
Fluorine F-F F2
Chlorine Cl-Cl Cl2
Bromine Br-Br Br2
Iodine I-I I2
So you ask…. “How do I know if it is
covalent or ionic?”
• Ionic bonds are formed by the attraction of two
oppositely charged particles.
• Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share
electrons.
• Typically bonds between metals and nonmetals form
ionic bonds.
• Bonds between two nonmetals form covalent bonds.
 Electronegativity
What is it?

Electronegativity is the power of an atom to attract

electron density in a covalent bond 

Remember the definition …

… look for where you get the ticks!
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

The higher the value, the more electronegative the element

Fluorine is the most electronegative element

It has an electronegativity value of 4.0

 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

F
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

F
4.0
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

F
4.0
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

Li F
1.0 4.0
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

Li Be F
1.0 1.5 4.0
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

Li Be F
1.0 1.5 4.0
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

Li Be B F
1.0 1.5 2.0 4.0
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

Li Be B C F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 4.0
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

Li Be B C N F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

H He

Li Be B C N O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

H He
2.1
Li Be B C N O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
 Electronegativity
Pauling’s electronegativity scale

H He
2.1 -
Li Be B C N O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 -
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0 -
 IONIC BONDING
When an atom of a nonmetal
takes one or more electrons
from an atom of a metal
so both atoms end up with
eight valence electrons
 IONIC BOND FORMATION

Neutral atoms come near each other.

Electron(s) are transferred from the Metal atom
to the Non-metal atom. They stick together
because of electrostatic forces, like magnets.
 IONIC BONDING

Metals will tend to lose electrons

and become
POSITIVE CATIONS

Normal sodium atom loses one electron to become sodium ion

 IONIC BONDING

Nonmetals will tend to gain

electrons and become
NEGATIVE ANIONS

Normal chlorine atom gains an electron to become a chloride ion

 IONIC BONDING
POLYATOMIC IONS--a group of
atoms that act like one ion
NH4+1--ammonium ion
CO3-2--carbonate ion
PO4-3--phosphate ion
 IONIC BONDING

SODIUM SULFATE
 Properties of Ionic Compounds

Crystalline structure.
A regular repeating arrangement
of ions in the solid.
Ions are strongly bonded.
Structure is rigid.
High melting points- because of
strong forces between ions.
 Crystalline structure
The
POSITIVE + +
CATIONS - - -
- + + -
stick to the + - + - +
NEGATIVE - + - +
ANIONS, like
a magnet.
 Do they Conduct?
Conducting electricity is allowing
charges to move.
In a solid, the ions are locked in place.
Ionic solids are insulators.
When melted, the ions can move
around.
Melted ionic compounds conduct.
First get them to 800ºC.
Dissolved in water they conduct.
Ionic solids are brittle

+ - + -
- + - +
+ - + -
- + - +
 Ionic solids are brittle

• Strong Repulsion breaks crystal apart.

+ -
+ -
- + - +
+ - + -
- + - +
 COVALENT BONDING
When an atom of one
nonmetal
shares one or more electrons
with an atom of another
nonmetal so both atoms
end up with
eight valence electrons
 COVALENT BOND FORMATION

When one nonmetal shares one or

more electrons with an atom of
another nonmetal so both atoms end
up with eight valence electrons
 COVALENT BONDING
IS THE COMPOUND
A COVALENT COMPOUND?

NONMETAL NONMETAL

YES since it is made of only nonmetal elements

 Covalent bonding

• Fluorine has seven valence electrons

F
 Covalent bonding

• Fluorine has seven valence electrons

• A second atom also has seven

F F
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons

F F
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons

F F
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons

F F
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons

F F
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons

F F
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons
 Both end with full orbitals

F F
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons
 Both end with full orbitals

F F
8 Valence
electrons
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons
 Both end with full orbitals

F F
8 Valence
electrons
 Single Covalent Bond
• A sharing of two valence electrons.
• Only nonmetals and Hydrogen.
• Different from an ionic bond because they
actually form molecules.
• Two specific atoms are joined.
• In an ionic solid you can’t tell which atom the
electrons moved from or to.
 Water
Each hydrogen has 1 valence

H electron
Each hydrogen wants 1 more

The oxygen has 6 valence

electrons

O The oxygen wants 2 more

They share to make each other
happy
 Water
 Put the pieces together
 The first hydrogen is happy
 The oxygen still wants one more

HO
 Water

• The second hydrogen attaches

• Every atom has full energy levels

HO
H
 Carbon dioxide
• CO2 - Carbon is central atom
( I have to tell you)

C • Carbon has 4 valence

electrons
• Wants 4 more
• Oxygen has 6 valence
O electrons
• Wants 2 more
 Carbon dioxide

• Attaching 1 oxygen leaves the oxygen 1

short and the carbon 3 short

CO
 Carbon dioxide
 Attaching the second oxygen leaves
both oxygen 1 short and the carbon 2
short

OC O
 Carbon dioxide
 The only solution is to share more

O CO
 Carbon dioxide
 The only solution is to share more

O CO
 Carbon dioxide
 The only solution is to share more

O CO
 Carbon dioxide
 The only solution is to share more

O C O
 Carbon dioxide
 The only solution is to share more

O C O
 Carbon dioxide
 The only solution is to share more

O C O
 Carbon dioxide
 The only solution is to share more
 Requires two double bonds
 Each atom gets to count all the atoms in the
bond

O C O
 Carbon dioxide
 The only solution is to share more
 Requires two double bonds
 Each atom gets to count all the atoms in the
bond
8 valence
electrons

O C O
 Carbon dioxide
 The only solution is to share more
 Requires two double bonds
 Each atom gets to count all the atoms in the
bond
8 valence
electrons

O C O
 Carbon dioxide
 The only solution is to share more
 Requires two double bonds
 Each atom gets to count all the atoms in the
bond
8 valence
electrons

O C O
 How to draw them
• Add up all the valence electrons.
• Count up the total number of electrons to
make all atoms happy.
• Subtract.
• Divide by 2
• Tells you how many bonds - draw them.
• Fill in the rest of the valence electrons to fill
atoms up.
 Polar Bonds
• When the atoms in a bond are the same, the
electrons are shared equally.
• This is a nonpolar covalent bond.
• When two different atoms are connected, the
atoms may not be shared equally.
• This is a polar covalent bond.
• How do we measure how strong the atoms
pull on electrons?
 Electronegativity
• A measure of how strongly the atoms attract
electrons in a bond.
• The bigger the electronegativity difference the
more polar the bond.
• 0.0 - 0.3 Covalent nonpolar
• 0.3 - 1.67 Covalent polar
• >1.67 Ionic
 How to show a bond is polar
• Isn’t a whole charge just a partial charge
• means a partially positive
• means a partially negative

 
H Cl
• The Cl pulls harder on the electrons
• The electrons spend more time near the Cl
Polar Molecules

Molecules with ends

 Polar Molecules
• Molecules with a positive and a negative end
• Requires two things to be true
 The molecule must contain polar bonds
This can be determined from differences in
electronegativity.
 Symmetry can not cancel out the effects of the polar
bonds.
 Must determine geometry first.
 Is it polar?

• HF

• H2O

• NH3

• CCl4

• CO2
 Dative Bonding
• Now draw the bonding in the ammonium
ion, NH4+.
• Imagine that it is made from the
combinations of NH3 and H+.
• Draw those two species first and then try to
draw them bonded together.
Also written:
 Dative Bonding
• A dative covalent bond is a shared pair of
electrons which have both been provided by
the same atom.
• Dative covalent bonds are also called co-
ordinate bonds.
 Polyatomic Ions
• A polyatomic ion is a tightly bound group of atoms that has a
positive or negative charge and behave as a unit.
• A group of atoms that are covalently bound and as a whole
have a charge.
Multiple type of bonding
 Which compound contains both
ionic and covalent bonds?
1. HBr
2. CBr4
3. NaBr
4. NaOH
 Intermolecular Forces

What holds molecules to each other

 Intermolecular Forces

The attractions between molecules are not nearly

as strong as the intramolecular attractions that
hold compounds together.
 Intermolecular Forces

They are, however, strong enough to control

physical properties such as boiling and melting
points, vapor pressures, and viscosities.
 Intermolecular Forces

These intermolecular forces as a group are

referred to as van der Waals forces.
 Ion-Dipole Interactions
• A fourth type of force, ion-dipole interactions are
an important force in solutions of ions.
• The strength of these forces are what make it
possible for ionic substances to dissolve in polar
solvents.
Dipole-Dipole Interactions
• Molecules that have
permanent dipoles are
attracted to each other.
– The positive end of one is
attracted to the negative
end of the other and vice-
versa.
– These forces are only
important when the
molecules are close to each
other.
 Factors Affecting London Forces

• The strength of dispersion forces tends to

increase with increased molecular weight.
• Larger atoms have larger electron clouds, which
are easier to polarize.
 Which Have a Greater Effect:
Dipole-Dipole Interactions or Dispersion Forces?
• If two molecules are of comparable size and
shape, dipole-dipole interactions will likely be
the dominating force.
• If one molecule is much larger than another,
dispersion forces will likely determine its
physical properties.
 Intermolecular Forces
• They are what make solid and liquid molecular
compounds possible.
• The weakest are called van der Waal’s forces - there
are two kinds
• Dispersion forces
• Dipole Interactions
– depend on the number of electrons
– more electrons stronger forces
– Bigger molecules
 Dipole interactions
• Depend on the number of electrons
• More electrons stronger forces
• Bigger molecules more electrons
• Fluorine is a gas
• Bromine is a liquid
• Iodine is a solid
 Dipole interactions
• Occur when polar molecules are attracted to
each other.
• Slightly stronger than dispersion forces.
• Opposites attract but not completely hooked
like in ionic solids.
 Dipole interactions
• Occur when polar molecules are attracted to
each other.
• Slightly stronger than dispersion forces.
• Opposites attract but not completely hooked
like in ionic solids.
   
H F H F
 Dipole Interactions















 





 

 Hydrogen Bonding

• The dipole-dipole interactions

experienced when H is bonded to N,
O, or F are unusually strong.
• We call these interactions hydrogen
bonds.
 Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonding arises
in part from the high
electronegativity of
nitrogen, oxygen, and
fluorine.

Also, when hydrogen is bonded to one of those very

electronegative elements, the hydrogen nucleus is
exposed.
Summarizing Intermolecular Forces
 Hydrogen bonding
• Are the attractive force caused by hydrogen
bonded to F, O, or N.
• F, O, and N are very electronegative so it is a
very strong dipole.
• The hydrogen partially share with the lone
pair in the molecule next to it.
• The strongest of the intermolecular forces.
 Hydrogen Bonding


-


+
O
+ - H H 
+

H O
H +
 Hydrogen bonding

H
O

O
H O H
H

H
H

O
H O

H
H

H
H O
O

H
H
 Sea of Electrons
• Electrons are free to move through the
solid.
• Metals conduct electricity.

+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
 Metals are Malleable
• Hammered into shape
(bend).
• Ductile - drawn into
wires.
Malleable

+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
 Malleable
• Electrons allow atoms to slide by.

+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
 Ionic Solids
What are the empirical formulas for these
compounds?
(a) Green: chlorine; Gray: cesium
(b) Yellow: sulfur; Gray: zinc
(c) Green: calcium; Gray: fluorine

(a) (b) (c)

CsCl ZnS CaF2

 Covalent-Network and
Molecular Solids

• Diamonds are an example of a covalent-network

solid in which atoms are covalently bonded to
each other.
– They tend to be hard and have high melting points.
 Covalent-Network and
Molecular Solids

• Graphite is an example of a molecular solid in

which atoms are held together with van der Waals
forces.
– They tend to be softer and have lower melting points.
 Metallic Solids
• Metals are not covalently
bonded, but the
attractions between atoms
are too strong to be van
der Waals forces.
• In metals, valence
electrons are delocalized
throughout the solid.