ECV4702

Construction technology
Week 4 & 5

Dr. Aidi Hizami bin Ales @ Alias

aidihizami@upm.edu.my
03-89466391
Room : 6-34
 Presentation outline
• Introduction

• Earthwork design principle

• Design of earthworks

• Earthwork construction

• Rock Blasting
 introduction
• What is earthwork??
• Engineering works created through the moving of massive quantities of soil or
unformed rock
• The first work performed on most construction projects
• Encompasses a number of activities, from clearing the site to excavating for
structures or pipes
• Prepares the site for other construction work, such as building, bridges and
paving roads.
• Problems with earthwork often do not become apparent until other construct
ion work has been done
• Time and cost consuming
• Typical earthworks include:
• Platforms Canal

• Roads

• Dams And many more!!

• Problem associated with earthwork
 Earthwork design principle
• To establish the overall earthworks for the viability of the project and to assist on plann
ing of land use, compliance with prevailing guidelines and laws

• 5 main objectives

• Enhance early scoping

• Minimize scope changes

• Provide base platforms and layout plan

• Reduce conflicts / disputes

• Costs plan
• Typical development condition and challenges

• Coastal development
• Influenced by high and low tides

• Soft ground development

• Influenced by poor soil condition

• Low land development

• Influenced by highest flood level

• High land development

• Influenced by slope risk of failure
Typical earthwork development - Compliance
Typical project development – non-compliance
• Infrastructure influencing earthwork design

• Drainage system – Main stream

• Drainage system - detention pond

• Water supply system

• Generally flat area with only prominent highest ground
• Gravity flow is most possible
 Design of earthwork
• Site Location
• Identification of correct site and
• project boundary is crucial

• Obtain CP from Survey Department

• Check lot numbers
• Check boundaries
• Obtaining confirmed requirements and data

• Approved layout masterplan - Architect or Town Planner

• Development Order - Local council

• Topographical survey - Land surveyor

• Highest Flood Level - DID

• Soil Investigation - Geotechnical Engineer

• Local Guidelines - Local Council / Authority / Agency

• 5 design guiding principles:

• Integrate the design platform levels with existing developments

• Design platform levels shall tie in with the roads

• All slope formations shall be kept within the plot boundaries

• Achieve an almost balanced cut and fill volume within the development

• Establishing preliminary platform levels based on development scheme requirem

ents, infrastructure and utilities
• 6 design procedures

• Design criteria

• Study project layout

• Study project survey drawing in conjunction with the development plan

• Propose platform levels

• Compute volume of cut and fill

• Propose retaining structure (if necessary)

• Design criteria

• Clearing, grubbing, stripping top soil, cut and fill, compact, trimming, turf
ing and soil test for FGL

• Height of slopes, 3m intervals with toe, berm and intercepting drain

• All slopes closed turf

• Min formation of platform level, 1 m above Highest Flood Level

• Temporary drains to main drain shall pass Silt Trap (Sediment Trap)

• Wash trough before public road

• Minimum of 1 number of TBM established

• Design options for cut slopes
• Balanced cut and fill
• Full bench cut
• Through cut
• Design options for fill slope
• Typical fill
• Benched slope fill with layer placement
• Reinforced fill
• Through fill
• Slope failures can occur when:

• A slope is over-steep

• Fill material is not properly compacted

• Cuts in natural soils encounter groundwater or zones of weak material

• Study project layout plan
• Study project layout in conjunction with the development plan
• Propose platform level
• Compute volume of Cut and Fill
• Principle
• To obtain balance cut and fill
• Too much excess of cut material will be difficult to dispose
• Too much fill material will be difficult to obtain borrow source and cost

• Average end area method

• V = (A1 + A2) x L/2

• Prismoidal Method (more accurate than average end area method)

• Vp = (A1 + 4Am + A2) * L/6

• Pyramid Method (one end area is zero)

• V = A x L/3
• Cut and fill between two stations
•

Step 1: Figure out the total cut/fill area per station. This is
usually given. The length of the station is 10m
- ST 1+00 = Cut area = 8.5m2, Fill area = 10m2
- ST 2+00 = Cut area = 14m2, Fill area = 2m2

Step 2: Use formula to calculate the cut/fill volume between

stations
- Volume cut = (8.5 + 14) x 10/2 = 112.5m3
- Volume fill = (10 + 2) x 10/2 = 60m3

Step 3: Find total net cut or fill between the stations

- Total cut or fill = Volume cut – Volume fill
- Total cut = 112.5 – 60 = 52.5m3
 • Cut and fill between multiple stations (assume 10 meters apart)

Station Cut Area Fill Area Cut vol Fill vol Net vol Mass diagram
ordinate

A 17.5 12.5 0
146 124 22
B 11.7 12.3 22
177.5 186.5 -9
C 23.8 25.0 13
224.5 245 -20.5
D 21.1 24.0 -7.5
204.5 210 -5.5
E 19.8 18.0 -13
 Earthwork construction
• Prior to starting any earthwork:
• Verify location of underground utilities
• Dig test pits to confirm actual locations
• Note location of aerial utilities for equipment and truck clearances
• Confirm that all applicable permits and approvals have been secured
• Review soil borings and other geotechnical information
• Observe existing drainage patterns
• Plan access and excavation patters
• Determine handling of spoils
• Verify original ground surfaces (compare against existing contours or cross s
ections shown on the plan)
• Typical scope of earthwork

• Site clearing

• Cutting and excavation

• Transport and moving

• Compaction

• Sloping
• Site clearing includes:
• Demolition of existing buildings
• The grubbing out of bushes and trees
• Removal of trees (manual or mechanical means)
• Topsoil striping
• Muck excavation
• Bulldozers
• Standard equipment for land clearing
• Determination of time required to clear a given area
• Step 1 (A) – Determine the size of the are to be cleared (in acres)

• Acres to be cleared = (width (ft) x length (ft)) / 43560 sqft per acre

• Step 2 – Determine the size and number of dozers available (i.e. medium @ heavy)
• Step 3 - Determine the maximum size of the tress to be cleared
• Step 4 (D) – Determine the time required (hours per acre) for clearing, based on d
ozer size and tree size (Refer table below)
Equipment (hours per acre)
Equipment Light Medium Heavy
(12 inches or less*) (12 to 18 inches*) (18 inches*)
Medium bulldozer 2.5 5.0 10.0
Heavy bulldozer 1.5 3.0 8.0
• Step 5 (E) – Determine the efficiency factor for the work. Operator require break
s, and there are always secondary delays for minor equipment repairs. Therefore, ac
tual production time per hour is something less than 60 minutes. In the case of a w
ell-managed job, expect 50 minutes of production time per hour.
•
• Efficiency factor = actual working minutes per hour / 60 minute working hou
r

• Step 6 (O) - Determine the operator factor using table below (Assuming good visibil
ity and a 60Daylight
Operator ability minutes working hour
Nightefficiency)
Excellent 1.00 0.75
Average 0.75 0.56
Poor 0.60 0.45

• Determine the total time (in hours) required to complete the work
• Total time (hours) = (D x A) / (E x O x N)
• Excavation
• Carried out as either
• Part of the permanent works (e.g. cuttings)
• A temporary expedient in the construction of the works (e.g. for foundations and dr
ainage)
• The sides of the excavations are required to remain stable during their desig
n life, can be achieved by
• Excavating the material to a stable slope angle
• By retaining or supporting the material
• Factors affecting excavation production
• Width of excavation
• Depth of cut
• Material type
• Working radius for digging and dumping
• Required bucket dumping height
• Bucket size
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• Step 1 - Determine the bucket fill factor based on the material typ
e
Material Fill Factor (Percent)

Sandy clay 100 to 110

Sand and gravel 95 to 110

Rock (poorly blasted) 40 to 50

Rock (well blasted) 60 to 75

Hard, tough clay 80 to 90

• Step 2 - Use cycle time based on past performance data (if availabl
e) or use the average cycle time of 14 seconds
• Step 3 - Determine the ideal production rate (loose cubic yard - LC
Y per hour)
Ideal production rate = [3600 sec per hour x bucket size
(cubic yard) x fill factor] / cycle tim
e 12/24/2020
• Step 4 - Determine the production rate (LCY per hour) by adjusting for effic
iency

Production rate = ideal production rate x efficiency factor

• Step 5 - Convert the production rate from LCY per hour to BCY per hour
Material type Converted from Bank (in place) Loose Compacted

Bank (in place) - 1.11 0.95

Sand or gravel Loose 0.90 - 0.86
Compacted 1.05 1.17 -
Bank (in place) - 1.25 0.90
Loam (Common Loose 0.80 - 0.72
Earth) Compacted 1.11 1.39 -
Bank (in place) - 1.43 0.90
Clay Loose 0.70 - 0.63
Compacted 1.11 1.59 -
Bank (in place) - 1.50 1.30
Rock (Blasted) Loose 0.67 - 0.87
Compacted 0.77 1.15 - 12/24/2020
• EXAMPLE

Use a hoe equipped with a 0.25 cubic-yrd bucket to excavate hard clay. The depth of cut will
average about 50% of the machine`s maximum digging depth and the swing angle should be less t
han 600. What is the expected production, in BCY per hour, assuming 50 working minutes per ho
ur?

- Step 1: Fill factor for hard clay

= 80 to 90% (take average 85%)
- Step 2: Average cycle time
= 14 seconds (average cycle time)
- Step 3: Ideal production rate: bucket size (0.25 cubic yards)
= 55 LCY per hour
- Step 4: Production rate: Efficiency factor (50 minutes)
= 45 LCY per hour
- Step 5: Production rate (BCY per hour): Soil conversion factor (0.7)
= 32 BCY per hour
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• Transport and moving
• The production capacity of the loading equipment is normally the hauling operation`s controlling
factor. Never keep loading equipment waiting. If there are not enough trucks, there will be a los
s in production

22 tyres
• 36 cubic meter capacity
(56 tonnes)

18 tyres (double bucket)

36 cubic meter capacity

(53 tonnes)

18 tyres (single bucket)

27 cubic meter capacity

(37 tonnes)
14 tyres

22 cubic meter capacity

(37 tonnes)

12 tyres

15 cubic meter capacity

(29 tonnes)

10 tyres

12 cubic meter capacity

(22 tonnes)

6 tyres

6 cubic meter capacity

(10 tonnes)

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• Step 1: Determine the number of bucket loads required to fill a truck
•
• Bucket loads = haul-unit capacity / bucket capacity

• Step 2: Determine the loading time per haul unit

•
• Loading time per haul unit = bucket cycle time x number of bucket loads

• Step 3: Determine the number of hauling units needed to support the loading unit

• Truck cycle time = haul-unit cycle time + loading time

• Number of trucks required = 1 + (truck cycle time (minutes)/loader cycle times (minutes)

• Step 4: Determine the production based on the number of hauling units used.

• Production = haul-unit load x minutes per working hour / loader cycle time in minutes 12/24/2020
• Example
• How many 5-ton dump trucks (hauling 3 LCY per load) will it take to suppor
t a wheel loader having a 2-cubic yard heaped-bucket capacity. The haul-un
it cycle time is 20 minutes excluding loading time. The loader cycle time
per bucket load is 0.5 minutes. Consider a 50-minute working hour.

• Step 1: Bucket loads = 3 LCY / 2 LCY = 1.5 bucket loads

• Step 2: Loading time per haul unit = 0.5 minutes x 1.5 = 0.75 minutes
• Step 3: Truck cycle time = 20 minutes + 0.75 minutes = 20.75 minutes
Number of trucks required = 1 + (20.75 / 0.75) = 28.67 trucks = 2
9 trucks
• Step 4: Production = 3 LCY x (50/0.75) = 200 LCY per hour

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• Compaction
• Objective of compaction
• Increased bearing capacity
• Reduce compressibility
• Reduce permeability
• Improve stability

• 5 factors affecting compaction

• Physical and chemical properties
• Moisture content
• Method of compaction
• Amount of compactive effort
• Thickness of layer or lift being compacted
• Production estimate of compactor
• Production (CCY per hour) = 16.3 x W x S x L x E / N
where 16.3 = constant for converting the factors in feet, mph and inch
es to CCY, W = compacted width per pass (feet), S = compactor speed (mp
h) (refer table below), L = compacted lift thickness (inches), E = Effici
ency, N = Number of passes required

Compactor Speed (mph)

Sheepfoot, crawler 3–5
Sheepfoot, wheel 5 – 10
Multitired pneumatic 5 – 15
Smooth-drum vibratory 2–4
Dual-drum vibratory 2–4
Vibratory
Plate 0.6 – 1.2
Roller 1

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• Example
• What is the estimated production rate (CCY per hour) for a smooth-drum vib
ratory with a compaction width of 5 feet? The following information was ob
tained from a test strip at the project:
Compacted lift thickness = 6 inches
Average speed = 4 mph
Number of passes = 5
Efficiency Factor = 0.83

Production (CCY per hour) = 16.3 x 5 x 4 x 6 x 0.83 / 5 passes

= 324.7 CCY per hour

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• Number of compactors required

Compactors required = amount of fill delivered (LCY per hour) x soil

conversion factor (LCY:BCY) (step 5 excavation) / comp
actor production (CCY per hour)

• Example
• How many compactors are required on the project from previous example if
1,500 LCY of blasted rock is delivered per hour?

Compactors required = 1500 LCY per hour x 0.87 (soil conversion factor) / 4
87 CCY per hour
= 2.7 compactors = 3 compactors

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• Keys to a successful earthwork
• Control surface and subsurface water
• Maintain optimum moisture range by drying, mixing or wetting
• Identify and monitor cut and fill quantities
• Good layout (horizontal and vertical control)
• Minimize handling – minimize stockpiling
• Optimize haul lengths
• Minimize cycle time
• Proper selection and sizing of equipment
• Alternate haul unit wheel paths
• Experienced personnel in the field
 Rock Blasting
• The process of breaking rocks into smaller pieces by use of explosives
• An explosion can be broken down into four phases
• Release of gas
• Intense heat (temperature of the gas increases)
• Extreme pressure (pressure will also increase)
• The explosion (move and break the rock)

• The purpose of blasting

• One solid piece -> smaller pieces (fragmentation) -> to be moved or excavated (movement)
• Underground blasting for example, requires greater fragmentation than surface blasting because of the size of the equipment that c
an be used and the difficulty of access
• Get the desired results with a minimum cost
• Explosion involves two basic processes
• Radial cracking
• Flexural rupture

• Rock is stronger in compression than in tension. Therefore the easiest way

to break rock is to subject it to a tensile stress greater than its ultima
te strength in tension

• Rocks are heterogeneous (contain different types of rocks). They differ in

their density.

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• Radial cracking

• The distance from the borehole to the free face is the burden
• The denser the rock, the faster the waves
• Proper fragmentation when enough to travel to the face and back, will overcom
e the tensile strength of the rock
• Along the face, the outermost edge is stretched in tension which causes crack
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• Flexural rupture

• The second process in breaking rock by bending the rock to the point where ou
tside edge, the side in tension, breaks
• Caused by the rapid expansion of gases in borehole
• Analogous to the bending and breaking of a beam
• Movement or displacement are required in addition to cracking
• After detonation, the radial cracks expands and the gas starts the movement a
gainst the borehole wall causing it to bend

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• Blast design

• Every blast must be designed to meet the existing conditions of the rock form
ation and overburden, and to produce the desired final result
• Rock is not a homogenous material. There are fracture planes, seams and chang
es in burden that need to be considered
• Initial blast designs use idealized assumptions. Because of this, it must alw
ays be understood that the theoretical blast design is only the starting poin
t for blasting operations in the field.
• A trial blast should always be performed. It will either validate the initial
assumptions or provide the information needed for final blast design.

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• The most critical dimension in blast design is the burden distance.
• Burden distance is the shortest distance to stress relief at the time a bl
asthole detonates. It is normally the distance to the free face in an exca
vation.
• Formula for approximating burden distance on a first trial shot
B = ((2SGe / SGr) + 1.5 ) * De

where B = burden (ft), SGe = specific gravity of explosive, SGr = specifi

c gravity of rock, De diameter of the explosive (in)

• The specific gravity for explosive will be given, while specific gravity f
or rock will be based on table.

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 Rock classification Specific Gravity
Basalt 1.8 – 3.0
Dibase 2.6 – 3.0
Diorite 2.8 – 3.0
Dolomite 2.8 – 2.9
Gneiss 2.6 – 2.9
Granite 2.6 – 2.9
Gypsum 2.3 – 2.8
Hematite 4.5 – 5.3
Limestone 2.4 – 2.9
Marble 2.1 – 2.9
Quartzite 2.0 – 2.8
Sandstone 2.0 – 2.8
Shale 2.4 – 2.8
Slate 2.5 – 2.8
Trap Rock 2.6 – 3.0
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• Example

• A contractor plan to use dynamite that has specific gravity of 1.3 to open
an excavation in granite rock. The drilling equipment available will drill
a 3 inches blasthole. Dynamite comes packaged in 2 ¾ inches diameter stick
s. What is the recommended burden distance for the first trial shot?

Specific gravity of granite = (2.6 + 2.9) / 2 = 2.8

B = ((2 (1.3) / 2.8 ) + 1.5) * 2.75

= 6.7 ft

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• Explosive density is used in in the equation because of the proportional r
elationship between explosive density and strength

• There are however, some explosive emulsions which exhibit differing streng
ths at equal densities

• AN equation based on relative bulk strength instead of density can be used

in such situations.

B = 0.67 De ( Stv / SGr )1/3

where SGr = specific gravity of rock, De diameter of explosive (inches),

Stv = relative bulk strength compared to ANFO (will be given)

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• When more than 1 row of blastholes are used, the burden distance between r
ows will usually be equal
• If more than two rows are to be fired in a single shot, either the burden
distance of the rear holes must be adjusted, or delay devices must be used
to allow the face rock from the front rows to move.
• The burden distance should also be adjusted because of the geological vari
ations
• Therefore, it is always necessary to use correction factors for specific g
eological conditions

B corrected = B x Kd x K s

where Kd = correction factor for rock deposition, Ks = correction factor

for rock structure

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Rock Deposition Kd Rock Structure Ks
Bedding steeply dipping into cut 1.18 Heavily cracked, frequent weak joints, 1.30
weakly cemented layers
Bedding steeply dipping into face 0.95
Thin, well-cemented layers with tight 1.10
Other cases of deposition 1.00 joints
Massive intact rock 0.95

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• Example

• A new quarry is being opened in a limestone formation having horizontal bedding with numero
us weak points. From a borehole test drilling program, it is believed that the limestone is
highly laminated with many weakly cemented layers. Because of possible wet conditions, a ca
rtridge slurry having relative bulk density of 140 will be used as explosive. The 6.5 inche
s blastholes will be loaded with 5 inches diameter cartridges. What is the burden distance?

Average specific gravity of limestone = 2.6

B = 0.67 (5) ( 140 / 2.6 )1/3 = 12.65 ft

Kd = 1 (horizontal bedding)
Ks = 1.3 (numerous weakly cemented layers)

B corrected = 12.65 x (1) x (1.3) = 16.4 ft

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• Stemming
• The adding of an inert material on top of the explosive in a blasthole for th
e purpose of confining the energy of the explosive
• It is common practice to use drill cuttings as the stemming material
• To function properly, the stemming material should have an average diameter o
f 0.05 times the diameter of the hole and should be angular
• If the stemming distance is too great, there will be poor top breakage from t
he explosion and backbreak will increase.
• If the stemming distance is inadequate, the explosion will escape prematurely
from the hole
• Under normal conditions, properly designed burden and explosive, and good ste
mming material, a stemming distance, T, of 0.7 times the burden distance will
be satisfactory
T = 0.7 x B

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• Subdrilling
• A shot will normally break to the very bottom of the blasthole. This can be u
nderstood by remembering that the second mechanism of breakage is flexural ru
pture.
• To achieve a specified grade, one will need to drill below the desired floor
elevation. This portion of the blasthole below the desired final grade is te
rmed as subdrilling.
• Subdrilling represents the depth required for explosive placement, not a fiel
d drilling depth.
• The drilling distance, J, required can be approximated by the following formu
la

J = 0.3 x B

• During the drilling operation, there will be random drilling depth and materi
al will accidentally fall into some holes. Therefore, for practical reasons,
drilling should be to a depth slightly greater than calculated

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• Blasthole size
• The size (diameter) of the blasthole will affect blast considerations concern
ing fragmentation, air blast, flyrock and ground vibration
• The economics of drilling is the second consideration in determining blasthol
e size
• Larger holes are usually more economical to drill, but they introduce possibl
e blast problems
• Need to consider the stiffness ratio (SR) for blasting purposes

SR = (L / B)
where L is the bench height (will be given), and B is the burden distance.

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• The following table gives the relationship between the stiffness ratio and
the critical blasting factors

Stiffness Ratio (SR) 1 2 3 >4

Fragmentation Poor Fair Good Excellent
Air Blast Severe Fair Good Excellent
Flyrock Severe Fair Good Excellent
Ground vibration Severe Fair Good Excellent

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• Example

• A contractor plans to use dynamite that has specific gravity of 1.3 to ope
n an excavation in granite rock. The drilling equipment available will dri
ll a 5 inches blastholes. Dynamite comes packaged in 2.75 inches and 5.5 i
nches diameter sticks. If the specifications call for a 13 ft bench height
and the extent of the excavation perpendicular to the face is 100 ft, how
many rows of blastholes will be required for both the 2.75 and 4.5 diamete
r packages. Which package of dynamite will result in lesser blasting probl
ems?

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 Specific gravity of granite = 2.8

For the 2.75 inches dia. Package

B = ((2 (1.3) / 2.8) + 1.5) (2.75) = 6.7 ft

No of rows required = (100 / 6.7) + 1 = 15.93 rows = 16 rows
SR = 13 / 6.7 = 1.94

For the 4.5 inches dia. Package

B = ((2 (1.3) / 2.8) + 1.5) (4.5) = 10.9 ft

No of rows required = (100 / 10.9) + 1 = 10.17 rows = 10 rows
SR = 13 / 10.9 = 1.19

Comparing the results if the SR using table given, the 2.75 inches dia explosives has lesser
blasting problem.
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• Spacing of blastholes
• An SR of less than 4 is considered a low bench and SR value of greater than 4
is considered as a high bench. This mean that there are four cases to be cons
idered
• Instantaneous initiation (1< SR < 4)
S = (L + 2B)/3

• Instantaneous initiation (SR>4)

S= 2B

• Delayed initiation (1< SR < 4)

S= (L + 7B)/8

• Delayed initiation (SR >4)

S = 1.4B

• The actual spacing utilized in the field should be within 15% plus or minus t
he calculated value
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• Example

• It is proposed to load 4 inches diameter blastholes with bulk ANFO. The contractor would li
ke to use an 8 x 8 drill pattern. Assuming the burden distance is correct, will the 8 ft sp
acing be acceptable? The bench height is 35 ft and each hole is to be fired on separate del
ay.

B = 8ft and L = 35 ft

L / B = 35 / 8 = 4.4 ft

Delay timing (SR > 4); S = 1.4 x 8 = 11.2 ft

Range = 11.2 +- 0.15(11.2)
= 9.5 < S < 12.9 ft

The spacing is not ok. The minimum pattern should be 8 x 9.5 ft

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• Assignment question

• A project in granite rock will have an average bench height of 20 ft. An e

xplosive having a specific gravity of 1.2 has been proposed. The contracto
r`s equipment can easily drill 3 inches diameter holes. Assume the package
d diameter of the explosives will be 2.5 inches. Delay blasting techniques
will be used. Develop a blast design for the project.

• Due : Friday next week (1st April 2016)

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