Lexico-semantic Expressive Means and

Stylistic Devices: Figures of Substitution

Stylistics semasiology is concerned with meanings of linguistic units, their
interaction and changes they undergo when used as expressive means and
stylistic devices.

Semasiological means of stylistics

Expressive means Stylistic devices

figures of substitution figures of combinati

In the process of human development new notions appear.

However there exists a tendency to economy of language means which leads to
secondary nomination.
Secondary nomination is the use of existing words or word-combinations for
denoting new or existing concepts.
Human conceptual system plays a central role in defining everyday realities.
Since communication is based on the same conceptual system that we use
thinking and acting, any language is an important source of evidence for what
that system is like.
 Human thought processes are largely
metaphorical.

The human conceptual system is

metaphorically structured and
designed (Lakoff George,
Johnson Mark, Turner Mark).

Example:

Life is a journey.

Figures of substitution

figures of quantity figures of qualification

hyperbole meiosis metonymy metaphor irony

litotes - synecdoche - epithet
- periphrasis - antonomasia
- euphemisms - personification
- allegory
 Hyperbole
Hyperbole is a deliberate
exaggeration of a certain quality
of an object or phenomenon
Hyperbole mounts the
expressiveness of speech
The most typical cases of
expression are: by pronouns, by
numerical nouns, by adverbs of
time
Hyperbole may be the final effect
of other stylistic devices:
metaphor, similie, irony
Hyperbole can be expressed by
all notional parts of speech
In Ukrainian the ways of
expression are as follows: by
pronouns, by numerical nouns,
by intensifying adverbs, by
adverbs of time, place
 MEIOSIS

Meiosis underlines
This figure of quantity is insignificance of such
opposite in meaning to qualities of objects and
hyperbole phenomena as their
size, volume, distance,
time, shape, etc.

The domain of meiosis is

colloquial speech
Meiosis is a deliberate
diminution of a certain
Meiosis makes speech
quality of an object or
expressive
phenomenon
Such a combination makes positive
sense

is a specific variant of meiosis

Litotes has a peculiar syntactic Litotes

structure
It is a combination of the negative
particle "not" and a word with
Litotes is used in all functional styles
negative meaning or a negative
of English
prefix

Litotes extenuates positive qualities

of objects or phenomena

It makes statements and judgments

sound delicate and diplomatic

It also expresses irony

 Metonymy
The syntactic
functions and Metonymy is Lexical metonymy
positions of transference of a is a source of
metonymic words name of one object creating new
are those of the to another object words or new
subject, object and meanings
predicative

Metonymic
transference of St. metonymy builds
Metonymy may be up imagery, points
names is based upon
lexical and contextual out this or another
the principle of
(genuine) feature of the object
contiguity of the two
objects described, etc

Lexical metonymy is Contextual metonymy is

Metonymy is expressed by
nouns, less frequently ‒ by
substantivized numerals
devoid of stylistic the result of unexpected
information
substitution of one word
for another in speech
 SYNECDOCHE

This variety of metonymy is realized in two variants.

The first variant is naming the whole object

by mentioning part of it

The second variant of synecdoche is using the

name of the whole object to denote a
constituent part of this object
This variety of metonymy is the replacement of a direct name of a thing or
phenomenon by the description of some quality of this thing or phenomenon

Periphrasis intensifies a certain feature of the object

described

It stands close to metonymy because it is one more way to

rename objects

There are such types of periphrasis as logical and figurative

Logical periphrasis is based upon one of the inherent properties

of the object

Figurative periphrasis is based upon metaphor or metonymy

Periphrasis performs a cognitive function: it deepens our

knowledge of the objective world
 EUPHEMISM
Euphemisms make
speech more polite, It is a word or word-combination which
delicate, acceptable is used to replace an unpleasantly
in a certain situation sounding word or word-combination

Euphemisms Disphemisms are

Euphemism might be have their conspicuously rough,
viewed as periphrasis: antipodes which rude and impolite
they have the same might be called words and word-
mechanism of formation disphemisms combinations.

Euphemisms may be classified The speaker resorts to disphemisms to express

according to the spheres of their his negative emotions, such as irritation, hate,
application and grouped the following scorn, mockery, animosity
way:

- Religious euphemisms Strictly speaking, euphemisms are

- Moral euphemisms not stylistic devices but expressive
- Medical euphemisms means of language: most of them
- Political euphemisms are registered in dictionaries
Metaphor is the second figure of quality
Metaphor is the result of transference of the name of one object to another object

However, metaphoric transference is of different nature: it is based upon similarity of

the objects (not contiguity)

The nature of metaphor is versatile, and metaphors may be classified according to a

number of principles:

According to the pragmatic effect produced upon the addressee metaphors are
subdivided into trite (or dead) and genuine (or original)

Original metaphors are created in speech by speakers' imagination

According to the degree of their stylistic potential metaphors are classified into
nominational, cognitive and imaginative (or figurative)

Nominational metaphors do not render any stylistic information

They are intended to name new objects or phenomena of the objective world
 A sustained metaphor
appears in cases when
a word which has been
used metaphorically
makes other words of
the sentence or
paragraph also realize
their metaphoric
meanings
This chain of simple Metaphors may be also
metaphors unfolds classified according to
the meaning of the their structure
first, initial (or according to
metaphor complexity of image
created)

A simple metaphor A nominational metaphor

There are such metaphors
consists of a single is a purely technical device
as simple (or elementary)
word or word- of nomination, when a new
and prolonged
combination notion is named by means
(or sustained)
expressing of the old vocabulary
indiscrete notion
Imaginative metaphors are
occasional and individual
A sustained metaphor is a
sequence of simple metaphors,
most of which are cognitive
 This variety of metaphor is
based upon the principle of
identification of human
beings with things which
surround them
People may be identified with
other people, with animals, with
inanimate objects and natural
phenomena
ANTONOMASIA
When the speaker resorts to
antonomasia, he creates the so-
called "talking names" which
aim at depicting certain traits of
human character: moral and
psychological features,
peculiarities of behaviour,
outlook, etc.
 PERSONIFICATION

When the speaker ascribes human behaviour, thoughts and actions

to inanimate objects, he resorts to the stylistic device of
personification
 ALLEGORY

Factually, allegory is antonomasia

The only difference between them lies in their usage:

the domain of allegory is not a sentence but the whole
text (a logically completed narration of facts
or events)

There are allegoric tales and fables,

stories and novels
 IRONY

• This figure of quality is realized when the speaker intentionally

breaks the principle of sincerity of speech

• Ironically used words acquire meanings opposite to their

primary language meanings: ironical good means bad, enough
means not enough, pleased means displeased, etc.

• Though irony is a contextual stylistic device, there exist words

and word-combinations which convey ironical meaning out of
context

• In order to help the addressee decode irony the speaker often

resorts to appropriate intonation and gestures