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This presentation includes the following

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1 Introduction to linear equations M
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2 Homogeneous linear equations E

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Solutions of O
3 homogeneous linear equations
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4 Trivial solution L
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5 Non trivial solution E

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How to solve
6 homogeneous linear equations E
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7 Applications A
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8 Examples O
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 Introduction to linear equations
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A LINEAR EQUATION is an algebraic equation in O
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which each term is either a constant or product of a O
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constant and a single variable of power 1. It can be E
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written as E
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a1x1 + a2x2 + . . . . .+ anxn = b; U

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A SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS (or linear L

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system) is a collection of linear equations involving N
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the same set of variables. A
a11 x1  a12 x 2  ....  a1n x n  b1 R

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a21 x1  a22 x 2  ....  a2n x n  b2 Q
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 T
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am1 x1  am2 x 2  ....  amn x n  bm O
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 Homogeneous linear equations
A linear equation will be homogeneous if the constant H
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term is zero. M
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a1x1 + a2x2 + . . . . .+ anxn = 0 E
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System of homogeneous linear equations is a E
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collection of homogeneous linear equations having the U
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same set of variables. They can be represented as
a11 x1  a12 x2  ....  a1n xn  0 L
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a21 x1  a22 x2  ....  a2 n xn  0  (1) N

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
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am1 x1  am 2 x2  ....  amn xn  0 Q
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 The above homogeneous system can be written in the T
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matrix form as O
AX=0 N
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Where A is the matrix of co-efficients i.e O
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 a11 a12  a1n  O
a a  a  G

A   21 2n 
21 E
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    E
  O
am1 am1  amn  U
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X is the column vector of variables i.e.,
 x1  L
x  I
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X   2 E
  A
  R
 xn 
And 0 is the null matrix. E
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0  U
0  A
o  T
  I
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  N
0  S
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 SOLUTIONS OF
HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS
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The solution obtained by solving the homogeneous M
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linear equations can be unique or there can be G
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infinite number of solutions. N
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These are classified into: O
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1 Trivial solution
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
2 Non trivial solution I
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 Trivial solution
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As, homogeneous linear equations can be written in O
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matrix form as O
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AX=0 ……. (1) E
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It is easy to notice that the solution to (1) is E
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X=0 U
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or x1=0, x2=0, x3=0,….., xn=0
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and certainly this is the case.  Although it is easy to I
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get this solution, usually this is not the desired E
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solution, so it is called the "trivial solution“. So we R

reach a very simple theorem (on the next slide). E

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Moreover if   A
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det A ≠ 0 I

then it is the unique solution. O

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 Theorem 1
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 Homogeneous system of linear equations is always O
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consistent as such a system in “n” variables always O
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has the solution E
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x1 = 0, x2 = 0,. …, xn = 0. E
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 Non trivial solution
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Along with the trivial solution, a homogeneous O
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system can have an infinite number of solutions O
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which are called “non-trivial solutions”. E
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As, homogeneous linear equations can be written O
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in matrix form as S

AX=0 ……. (1) L

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Referring to eq (1), when   N
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det A = 0 R

there is an infinite number of solutions which are E

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called “non-trivial solutions”.   U
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 Theorem 2
An n x n matrix that represents a homogeneous system of linear H
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equations has a nontrivial solution if and only if its determinantM
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=0 G
PROOF: E
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(1) Assume that the matrix has a nontrivial solution. E
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(2) Assume that its determinant ≠ 0 U
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(3) By Cramer's Rule, if determinant ≠ 0, then the
matrix has a unique solution. But if matrix has a unique solution,L
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then it does not have a nontrivial solution (As, unique solution
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will be the trivial solution). E
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(4) Therefore we have a contradiction and we reject our R

assumption in step # 2 and conclude that if determinant =0, we E

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can get a non-trivial solution. U
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 THEOREM 3
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STATEMENT: O
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A homogeneous system of m linear equations in n O
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un-knowns will have a non–trivial solution if m < n. E
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PROOF: O
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Consider a matrix B which is in the reduced row– S

echelon form and is row equivalent to the coefficient L

matrix of the system. Let m < n. Let “r” be the number I
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of non–zero rows in the matrix “B”. Then E
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r≤m<n R

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and hence Q
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n−r>0 A
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and so the number n − r of arbitrary unknowns is in I
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fact positive and we are forced to use the free N
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 H
to get the solution. Taking one of these unknowns to O
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be “t”, an arbitrary constant, gives us a non–trivial O
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solution. E
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 Solving Homogeneous Linear equations
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As we know that we can get two types of solutions O
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from homogeneous linear equations, namely trivial O
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and non-trivial solutions. Trivial solutions can be E

found easily by taking all variables equal to zero. On N

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the other hand non trivial solution is not as easy to O
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find as trivial solution is. So, non trivial solution can S

be found by different ways. Some of them are L

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Elementary Operations N
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Gauss Elimination Method A
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Guass Jordan Elimination E
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Before going into the detail of these methods, we U
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should be familiar with some of the basic concepts T
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stated below. O
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 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS
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Before discussing these methods in detail, we should O

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get familiar with some of the basic concepts. O

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Row equivalence N
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Two matrices are said to be row equivalent if one can O
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be changed to the other by a sequence of elementary S

row operations. L
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Free Variables N
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It can be difficult to describe the non trivial solution. R

Typically, some of the variables are introduced which E

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are allowed to take any value, and the remaining U
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variables are dependent on the values of the free T
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variables. These variables are called free variables. O
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 H

Augmented Matrix O
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The augmented matrix represents all the important G

information in the system of equations. The names E

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of the variables are ignored, and the only E
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connection with the variables is the location of their U
coefficients in the matrix. S

For example, the augmented matrix of the L

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system in eq.1 is N
 a11 a12  a1n  0 E
A
a a21  a2 n  0 R
 21 E
      Q
  U
am1 am1  amn  0 A
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 Elementary Operations
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Homogeneous linear equations can be solved by O
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the following simple operations, also called O
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elementary operations. E
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 Interchange the two equations E
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 Multiply a non-zero constant throughout an U
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equation
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 Add a multiple of one row to another row. I
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These operations can be performed on the E
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simple equations or by converting them into the R

matrix form. The other methods also employ these E

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operations to solve the equations. U
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 EXAMPLE 1
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Solve the following homogeneous system O
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2x+z=0 O
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x-y-z=0 E
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3x-y=0 E
SOLUTION O
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First of all, we’ll check whether the above system has
a non trivial solution or not. For this, we should have: L
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det A =0 E
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(where A is the coefficient matrix of the above system)
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Taking L.H.S. Q
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2 0 1 A
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detA  1  1  1 I
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3 1 0 N
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 2(0  1)  0(0  3)  1( 1  3) O
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 2( 1)  0  1(2) O
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 2 2  0 N
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So, the system has non-trivial solution. O

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Referring to the system S

E1: 2x+z=0 L
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E2: x-y-z=0 N
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E3: 3x-y=0 A
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Subtracting1/2 E1 from E2 and 3/2 E1 from E3 E
E1: 2x+z=0 Q
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E2: -y-3/2 z=0 T
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E3: -y-3/2 z=0 O
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Multiplying E1 by ½ O
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E1: x+ 1/2 z=0 G
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Multiplying E2 by -1 N
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E2: y+ 3/2 z=0 U
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Add E2 on E3
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E3: 0=0 I
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Let ½ z =t A
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or z= 2t E
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Putting this value in the above equations we have U
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E1: x+1/2 (2z) = 0 I
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x= -z N
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E2: y+3/2 (2t) = 0 O
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y = - 3t O
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So, the non trivial solution is N
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x = -z O
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y = -3t
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z = 2t I
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 Gaussian Elimination
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Gaussian elimination is a three step method for O
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solving systems of linear equations: O
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1) Write the system as an augmented matrix (use N
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zeroes for a particular variable of the system if it O
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doesn't appear in one of the equations) S

2) Use elementary row operations to reduce the L

matrix to row echelon form. I
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3) Use back substitution to finally solve the system. In A
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other words, write the system of linear equations E
corresponding to the reduced echelon form. Q
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Then, take a free variable and assign it different A

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values to get the non-trivial solution. O
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 Gauss-Jordan Elimination
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Through this method, the augmented matrix is O
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reduced into a form simple enough such that O
system of equation are solved by inspection. G
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It involves the following steps N
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1 Locate the leftmost column that does not consist O
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entirely of zero. S

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2 Interchange the top row with another row, if
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necessary, to bring a nonzero entry to the top from IN
step 1. E
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3 If the entry that is now at the top is a constant, divide R
entire row by it. E
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4 Add multiples to top row to the rows below such that U
all entries have 1 as leading term. A
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5 Cover top row and begin with step 1 applied to
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submatrix. N
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 APPLICATIONS
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Homogeneous linear equations find their M
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applications in G
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Balancing a chemical equation N
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Electrical Network Analysis U
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 Kirchhoff’s Laws
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Conditions of equilibrium A
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 Application to Chemistry
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Consider the following combustion reaction in which a O
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chemical equation relates how propane molecules O
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(C3H8)  combine with oxygen atoms (O2 ) to form carbon E
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). This reaction is given as: N
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x1 (C3H8)+ x2 (O2 ) x3 (CO2)+ x4 (H2O) U
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When a chemist wants to "balance this equation," whole
numbers  x1, x2, x3 , x4  must be found so that the number of L
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atoms of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) on the N
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left match their respective number on the right.   A
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To balance the equation, write three equations which keep E
track of the number of carbon, hydrogen Q
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 H
and oxygen atoms, respectively. O
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Carbon : 3x1+ 0 x2 = x3 + 0x4  G
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Hydrogen : 8x1+ 0 x2 = 0x3 + 2x4  N
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Oxygen : 0x1+ 2 x2 = 2x3 + x4  U
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The next example shows how to solve this system.
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 Example 2
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Q. Balance the propane-oxygen equation by solving O
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the homogeneous linear system O
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Carbon : 3x1+ 0 x2 = x3 + 0x4  E
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Hydrogen : 8x1+ 0 x2 = 0x3 + 2x4  O
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Oxygen : 0x1+ 2 x2 = 2x3 + x4  S

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SOLUTION: N
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We have the following equations R

3x1- x3 = 0 E
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8x1-2x4 = 0 A
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2 x2- x3-x4 = 0 O
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We can write them in matrix form as O
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AX = B O
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Where N
 x1  E
3 0  1 0  0  x  O

A  8 0 0  2 , B  0 , X   2

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x3 
0 2  2  1  0    L
x4  I
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As, we have E
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A X = B R

 x1  E
3 0 1 0 x  0  Q
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8 0 0  2   2   0  A
 x3    T
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0 2 2  1    0  O

x4 
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 H
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Form the augmented matrix  M = [A, B] M

3 0  1 0 0
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8 0 0  2 0 E
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  E

0 2  2  1 0
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Find the reduced row echelon form of the augmented
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matrix  M = [A, B] by Gaussian Elimination method as I
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follows. We have the following system  E
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3 0  1 0 R

8 0 0  2  E

  Q
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0 2  2  1  A
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 3 0  1 0 
0 0 8  8
  3  2 By R2  R3 H
3 O
0 2  2  1  M
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3 0 0 
3
4 N
0  3 E
  0 8
3  2 By R1  R2 O
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0 2  2  1  S

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3 0 0 3 4  I
0  4 N
 
8
3 0 10
3  By R2  R3 E
3 A
0 2  2  1  R

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3 0 0 3
 4 U
0 10  By R 
3 A
 
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3 0 3 3 R2 T
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0 0 2 3
2 

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 H
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By multiplying R1 by 1/3, R2 by3/8 and R3 by-1/2, we M
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shall get the required matrix in row reduced echelon G
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form that will be N
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1 0 0 1 4  O
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0 1 0  5  S

 4
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0 0 1 3 4  I
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 This linear system is equivalent to: E
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1 R
x1 - x4  0 E
4 Q
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5 A

x2 - x4  0 T
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4 O
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3 O
x3 - x4  0 M
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4 G
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There is one free variable required which we choose N
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to be  O
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x4 = 4t.   S

The above equation will be used in computing  x1, x2 L

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and x3 .  N
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Solving the previous equations for  x1, x2 and x3 . R

1 1 E
x1  x 4  (4t)  t Q
4 4 U
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5 5 I
x 2  x 4  (4t)  5t O
4 4 N
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3 3 O
x 3  x 4  (4t)  3 t M
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4 4 G
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By putting these values in the chemical equations, N
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we shall get the required balanced equation O
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t (C3H8)+ 5t (O2 ) 3t (CO2)+ 4t (H2O) S

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This is the required balanced equation I
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 Electrical Network Analysis
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Kirchoff’s Law M
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Homogeneous linear systems can be used in G
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solving electrical circuits in the form of Kirchoff’s N
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first law, which can be written mathematically as O
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I1+I2+I3+...+In=0
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 Conditions of equilibrium
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Both the conditions of equilibrium yield homogeneous M
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equations that can be written mathematically as G
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ΣF=0 N
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or F1+F2+F3+...+Fn=0 U
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and
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ΣƬ=0 I
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or Ƭ1+Ƭ2+Ƭ3+...+Ƭn=0 A
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A body will be said to be in equilibrium if and only if it E

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satisfies both the above mentioned equations. U
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LOGO

Prepared RAFAE
RAFAE ASHFAQ
ASHFAQ
by 08-EE-40
08-EE-40