CHAPTER 3

MODAL CHARACTERISTICS
INTRODUCTION
 Transport is a service which has the objective of a
safe arrival regardless of the traffic and the mode.
 Transport meets the demand for movement of people
and goods but the nature of this demands differs very
widely.
 Each modes has its own particular characteristics
which determine its suitability for the carriage of
commodities.
ROAD TRANSPORT
 The road network that have been designed and built so far can
connect any places, urban to rural, primary distributor to street,
etc.
 either government built or privately built, the purpose is to connect
between places.
 This is to cater the needs for private user, public transport and
commercial vehicles.
 The aims regards to road network:
To divert long-distance road traffic particularly heavy goods vehicles
from town, village, etc.
To create and maintain a comprehensive strategic trunk route
network to promote economic growth, linking remote, etc.
Make sure all airport and seaport connected to major trunk road to
promote trade.
Road characteristics
 Public ways
 All categories of road user share the same way
 Universality of the road network
 Make all places accessible and form the link between all other
modes of transport
 Flexible
 each vehicle operates independently of other vehicles.
 Durable and permanent
 It is solid construction and provided reasonable maintenance to
carried out.
 Congestion
 Due to sharing network, conflict arises between the demand for
road space
Private cars
Strengths
 Provide user ‘door-to-door’ transport and available on
demand at time convenient to the user.
 Speed generally higher for most journeys.
 Convenient form of transport when coupled with ‘door-
to-door’ nature.
 Comfort of passenger is very high.
 Relatively reliable and cheap to maintain.
 The only satisfactory modes for many people living in
sparsely population rural areas.
Cont’d
Weaknesses
 Reliance to oil-based products for energy makes the cost
of running car depending of oil price fluctuation.
 Mass use incompatible with satisfactory public transport.
 Environmental impact is severe especially in densely
populated urban areas.
 Require higher expenditure on road/highway
construction and maintenance.
 Low capacity in term of road space used per passenger
and take up large amount of land space for parking.
 Driver could not undertake any other task while driving
and need refreshment or breaks.
Cont’d
Taxis
Strengths
 No need to own a car for short journey. Can cater the
needs of disadvantages and elderly.
 User has no requirement to have driving skill.
 Provide ‘door-to-door’ service, virtually on demand and
fully personalized services.
 Reduce the need for extensive parking facilities.
 User does not require an extensive knowledge of the
physical layout of an area to travel.
 Less stress because service is reliable.
Cont’d
Weaknesses
 Occupancy factor very low, similar to private car, and
create congestion.
 Relatively high cost system of transport and exact fare
depending on destination.
 As with private cars, taxis add pollution in city centers.
Bus and coach
Strengths
 Have relatively modest capital cost, meaning that the capital
element in the overall operating cost is low.
 High capacity vehicle in term of road space used per
passenger.
 With a good road system, together with interchanged
facilities, it can be very flexible in the form of passenger
transport.
 No physical need for large terminal infrastructure.
 More environmentally ‘acceptable than the private car.
 Become a major element in any highway traffic control
programme.
 Benefits society in term of energy saving, noise reductions,
better safety and reduction of pollutions.
Cont’d
Weaknesses
 Share the way with other road users and have to contend
with any resulting congestions.
 Tailored to fixed routes and times, so that customers have to
fit their journey times and patterns to the bus timetable and
the route network.
 Public perception on bus services is more expensive to use
than the car.
 Bus operations in urban areas suffer from peak cost problems
.
 Buses not easily used by disadvantage groups and this been
compounded by the adoption of OMO.
Cont’d
Trucks
Strengths
 The most flexible form of freight transport, giving ‘door-to-
door’ service .
 Management of vehicle in control of the driver, the security
of the load and vehicle can be monitored.
 Very visible and can be used as mobile advertising
hoardings.
 Cost of operation easier to calculate than other modes of
transport.
Cont’d
Weaknesses
 Non-environmentally friendly as they produce noise, air
pollution, structural damage and visual intrusion.
 Heavy trucks pose a bigger safety hazard on the roads
and can be intimidating.
 Capacity is low compared to rail freight and sea freight to
carries bulk commodities.
 Trucks carry hazardous cargoes results in danger
inherent in carrying these commodities being spread to
other road users.
 Truck rely on oil as fuel, and their operation rely on
fluctuation of oil price.
Rail Transport
 Most railways began as private ventures and the track,
when built, constituted a private way for the sole use of
proprietor.
 In many countries, railways operated as a nationalized
industry.
Rail characteristics
 The nature of service, this mode need a completely uninterrupted
right of way which become an exclusive for rail operation only.
 What makes it exclusive?
 The way itself, can be either at grade, elevated or underground.
 Other facilities such stations, tunnels, bridges, signaling , etc.

 The railway constructed with continuously steel rails connected

to concrete sleepers embedded in loose ballast, and this results
much smoother ride, less maintenance and allow faster running
speeds.
 The nature of the wheels cause problem with starting and
stopping of trains.
 The construction of railway entails large engineering works with
cutting through hills, bridges, tunnels, level crossings, etc.
Cont’d
 Rail vehicles are guided by the rail on which they run and not
by the driver, so there is no way in which the train can avoid
another on the same stretch of track. – most of the accident
due to the nature or characteristic of it.
 The greatest problem when the same stretch of line has to be
used by trains running at widely different speeds.
 The sharing track between fast inter-city passenger trains,
slower stopping trains, cross-country trains and freight trains,
make it more complex in term of prioritized, scheduling, etc.
Cont’d
Strengths
 High average speed for journey range of 50 to 300 miles.
 Majority run intercity services which can minimize overall
journey time.
 Effectively utilizes land space. It can carry more passengers and
freight than any other land-based system.
 Less environmentally adverse, both visually and as regards to
physical pollution.
 Bulk handling capacity means they are very cost effective.
 Energy flexible and efficient. The use of electric traction relieve
the reliance of oil energy.
 A good safety record for both passenger and freight traffics.
 High scope for automation; possibility of driverless trains.
 Least affected by the weather.
Cont’d
Weaknesses
 The most vulnerable to the industrial activity especially
with regards to the major primary products such as coal,
iron ore, petroleum, etc.
 Railway is inherent inflexibility of operation. The existing
route not accommodate for current trading trends,
widespread activities.
 Its not ‘door-to-door’ service. Nearly half century, the
railway operation been subject to political interference
since it were first built, privatization, and until now.
 Railway industry affected to industrial action, stoppages
during industrial disputes make customer wary of relying
on services.
Air Transport
 This mode of transport buoyancy properties that can be
utilized without the need to design, build and maintain the
way.
 They are tend to be free, but they still required the navigation
for a journey from one place to another.
 Upon the air, pilot need to communicate with stations on the
ground to give details about the position, instruction, weather,
etc.
 A system of air routes controlled from the ground has been
developed world wide, based on the main routes between
major airports.
 Each nation state has control over the airspace above its
territory by agreement
Cont’d
 For efficient services, each air operators have to follow standard
that has been agreed by ICAO.
 The conduct of commercial airline pilot during the flight is
closely controlled by a system of air rules which established
basic principles for the protection of aircraft, persons and
property.
 Essential facilities for air transport such as specialized terminal,
air traffic controller, runways, etc.
 Functions of air traffic control:
 Prevent collisions between aircraft, and ground based obstructions.
 Provide aircraft with information and advise for safe and efficient
conduct.
 Initiate search and rescue operations when needed.
Cont’d
Strengths
 Major strength for this mode is the speed of travel. The
longer the distance of the flight, the greater time saving of
the customer.
 Has a good safety record and employs highly trained
professionals at all level of industry.
 Has good public image and perceived to be very
glamorous.
Cont’d
Weaknesses
 Inflexible in that an airplane has to land and take off at an
airport which is sited away from city centers. So that traffic
need to change mode to end destination.
 Noise pollution somewhere at airport area.
 Cost for freight more expensive compare to sea transport,
and carrying capacity is lower.
Sea/water Transport
 As air transport, the popular concept for sea transport is
tend to be free and required navigational aids for controlling
the shippers.
 As the physical environment of the oceans places
restrictions on the free movement of most ships.
 Modern electronic navigation system using space satellites
can be used to locate the ship, coupled with weather
routing advice schemes, can help sailor to avoid the worst
of weather.
 Together with high end technologies used in designing the
vessels really helped this industries.
Cont’d
Strengths
 Main strength for this mode lies in the capability of
moving vast quantities of cargo in one ship on one voyage.
 This become the cheapest method of moving goods world
wide.
 Operate national and international routes for both traffic,
passengers and freights.
 Vessels are very large, apart from the influences of the
elements, provide high standard of comfort.
 Provide variety of freight services e.g. RORO, barge, special
vessels, etc.
Cont’d
Weaknesses
 The main drawback is speed of ship which at 360
nautical miles per day on average, is very slow especially
when it is realized that the ship operates continuously
without break.
 Although relatively safe, accident can involves severe
pollutions, and some time loss of life.
Pipeline
 This is the unique as a form of transport. The way infrastructure
is also the carrying unit.
 Established for trunk hauls especially fro crude oil and
petroleum products.
 The usual system, lay a welded steel pipe coated with bitumen
and using cathodic protection in a trench deep enough to avoid
damage by other activities.
Cont’d
Strengths
 No packing of goods are necessary.
 Traffic remain unaffected by other elements such as road
congestions, vehicles breakdown, etc.
 They do not give off fumes, or make a lot of noise and
can be disguised against visual intrusion.
 Largely automated with very few personnel needed to
control the pumps and valves or to undertake the
maintenance.
 High speed with 24 hours operation
Cont’d
Weaknesses
 The usage only special for a single product; not sharing
with others.
 In the case of damaged will results to pollution, spillage,
etc.
 Leakages, rusting, corrosion.
 Internal & external pressure.
Modal choice
 The principle quality of service factors include:
 Speed of delivery
 When product is perishable
 Customer demand is urgent
 Lower amount of stock holding
 Perceived value of time by travellers
 Certainty of timing
 Freedom from interruption
 Avoidance of damage
 Avoidance of loss through pilferage
 Ancillary services
Traffic characteristics
Passenger traffic
 Physical characteristics of passengers
 The passenger is a standard unit. Load and unloads themselves unless disable
people that need some assistance.
 They have right to a service which will bring them to their destination as they
comfort and safety.
 Also assumed they can follow instructions, read timetable/schedule and self
consolidating.
 Economic characteristics of passengers
 Economic status of people may dictate the demand for movement, the choice
of various forms of movement and the amount of movements take place.
 Ability to pay depends on the standard of living of people which varies
enormously and the price of service.
 Willingness to pay depending on the journey purpose, if an essential trips
people may be willing to pay at any cost. This is where the situation of
inelastic demand towards transport occurs.
Cont’d
 Journey purpose
 People may have various reasons in making trips, this has a marked effect on the
type of services people demand.
 Journey purposes can be categorized into;
 Essential journey (e.g. Trips to work, school, etc)

 Non-essential journey (e.g Leisure, shopping, recreational, etc)

 Businessman require fast and comfortable service as they values their time highly
whilst a tourist may not be interested in speed at all but may consider.
 Location
 The activities which make up the purpose of the journey made by people may be
located anywhere, at any time and various types of services could be demanded:
 Urban , inter-urban, rural and international services
Traffic characteristics
 Goods/Freight traffic
 Physical characteristics freight
 Goods may have various properties and qualities which are very important to be
identified before planning for its transportation. This includes:
 Liquid, solid or gas
 Animate or inanimate – livestock
 Fragile or non-fragile
 Hazardous or non-hazardous ,etc
 It can be in variety of sizes, shapes and weights and this will influence the
packaging and material handling equipment to be used for it.
 Economic characteristics
 Demand for transport is derived demand.
 Goods can be classified as valuable and non-valuable, and the value of freight is
an indicator of the economic ability to bear the cost of transport.
 e.g. coal is low value goods, so it cannot bear high cost of transport. Gold is high
value, so it can bear high cost of transport which secured, less transit, etc.
Cont’d
 Stages in processing
 The value and bulk weight ratio of goods is different at each stage and has a great
implication for transport.
 Three stages concern in transport:
 Raw materials
 Semi processed Goods
 Finished Goods
 Method of handling
 The inherent properties of commodities influence the methods of packing to
avoid loss and damage.
 Packaging serves to consolidate goods into convenient sizes for handling and
marketing and also to protect the goods from damage or contamination.
 Size and divisibility
 The size of individual pieces or packages – dimensions, volumes or weights will
influence the capacity and the type of equipment to be used
 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFICIENT
TRANSPORT SERVICE
SAFE
SAFE PUNCTUALITY
PUNCTUALITY
ARRIVAL
ARRIVAL &&RELIABILITY
RELIABILITY

COMFORT
COMFORT
SPEED
SPEED

REGULARITY
REGULARITY CAPACITY
CAPACITY

FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY ACCEPTABLE
ACCEPTABLE
COST
COST
COMPREHENSIVENESS
COMPREHENSIVENESS
Service characteristics
 Safe arrival
 It is the main objective in the provision of services.
Failure to meet safe arrival mean failed to fulfill its roles
and functions.
 Safe arrival is critical for three (3) reasons:
1. Human life is precious
2. Damage to goods and property –waste of resources
3. Consignment of person or goods are expected to
arrive intact; if this expectation is not justified by
performance, movement will not take place.
 Provision of safe arrival in four areas;
 Safety factors on construction, design, unit of carriage,
terminals as well as personnel.
 Security factors from theft, pilferage or any damages.
 Responsibility of transport operators on what they
provided towards environment and to maintain high
standard in operation and management
 Public policy or regulation on transport construction
and operations. e.g. driver competence, license of
operator, etc.
Cont’d
 Speed
 Speed can be regarded as:
 The rate at which vehicles or traffic (goods/people) move along the
way.
 The period of time between the presentation of consignment to
completion of the journey. This called Transit time
 Advantages for speed in transport
 To guarantee the freshness of vegetables, fruits; catch the market for
perishable goods
 Quicker capital turnover and lower interest payments on capital
involve.
 Reduce the provision of storage facilities in distribution system.
 Time saving for business purposes.
 Travel a lot for leisure journey
 Shorten the journey for those feel discomfort for travel
FREIGHT: short transit time is an advantage
 Foodstuff, especially to guarantee freshness of fruits
and vegetables
 Other perishables; newspaper and fashion goods

 Speed reduce cost, quicker capital turnover

 Greater utilization of tpt facilities; greater quantity of

goods moving within a define period

 Reduce provision of storage facilities in distribution
system.
 Speed may not be desired regular supply for raw
material for industrial purpose (JIT)
PASSENGER: short transit time;
 Save time in business travel & money
 In leisure travel, speed means that more ground may
be covered and more time spend at destination.
 Greater use of facilities
 Quick transit enables home envtm. to be at a distance
from the place of work.
 Quick transit shortens the travel time for those who
suffer discomfort during travel
Cont’d
Regularity
 This enables:
 People to organize personal movement and activities to fit in
with transport.
 industries to plan production and conversion of material to

match the available transport

 Storage of goods to kept to a minimum

 People to choose transport service and to reach their

destination at the time they wish

Cont’d
Frequency
 Frequency in transport means the number of services in one
direction passing a point within a given time period.
 e.g. 5 trips per hour.
 It applies to batch movement; movement regularly or
irregularly spaced with short or long range intervals.
 Advantages for frequency/short intervals:
 Attract passengers because less waiting time and good
interchange connections.
 Affect total transit time for both traffics.
 Lessen storage required for goods/parts/products, and
this may result in saving more costs.
Cont’d
Punctuality and Reliability
 It is important to suit transport users plans for arrival and
departure. Unpunctuality may result in goods or passenger delay
in connection movement.
 Punctuality is based on service schedule or timetable published in
advance.It applies to both traffic where a low transit time is
essential.
 Reliability means that published timetables, scheduled or transit
arrangements are adhered to. It is important not to cancel
movement in short notice where defects in the way or unit of
carriage occur, unless this is unavoidable.
 Some defect are beyond operator control, but it is responsibility of
management and planning to maintain reliable service.
Cont’d
Comprehensiveness
 A perfect transport system may appear to be which would permit
any transport to take place without any break in the complete
journey.
 However, this is impractical due to complexities of buses
activities and advantages derived from various modes of
transport.
 The most ideal, practical or economical movement would be
selecting a route and modes of transport which provide the least
number of transfers of control and physical possessions of the
goods.
Cont’d
Cont’d
Comfort
 It is essential quality in transportation of people. Physical
comfort include the suspension and ride of the vehicle, seating,
temperature, air-conditioning, refreshment and an overnight
journeys, sleeping accommodations, etc.
 In travelling environment would seem to require at terminal
such as passenger amenities, convenience of interchange and
information service.
Cont’d
 Cost
 The true cost of movement is more than the money payable for the
use of transport facilities.
 Cost in freight movement include:
 Cost of using transport facilities
 Financial cost, insurance and interest
 Handling equipment, documentation, loss or damage cost, etc.
 True cost for passenger movement include the value of time lost whilst
moving in addition to the actual movement cost. This depend on the
value people place on their time.
 Cost of the service must be reasonable, the costing of a service must
depend partly on the extent to which the other characteristics are
incorporated into their service e.g. frequent service tend costly.
Cont’d
 Capacity
 Transport facilities must have capacity adequate for all reasonable
demands.
 Revenue earning potential of transport system determine by:
 Load bearing capacity of the way, dimension of unit of carriage, size
and efficiency of motive power and terminal.
 Number of hours per day the system is in use.
 Capacity can be increased by:
 Increasing dimensions of the way and strengthening e.g. double railway
track.
 Increasing payload of the unit of carriage by using lighter materials or
greater power.
 Better and faster system to allow speed and more units of carriage.
 Larger and efficient terminal operations.