How to write and publish a scientific paper

Jangy jalal kadir

Department of Architecture
College of Engineering, Tishik international University
2020-2021
 WHAT TO WRITE ON?
• May be based on original research
• Extensions to existing research
• Reevaluation of old research
• Based on your thesis
• Based on your conference papers
• Critique of someone’s work
• Develop from teaching materials (pedagogy)
• Comparative analysis
• Survey articles
 Why publish?
• To advance knowledge
• New scientific data (original research)
• Practical finding (case studies)
• Interpretation of existing knowledge (review article)

• To advance your institution

• Prestige
• Funding

• To advance yourself
• You want to strengthen and support your CV (CV building)
• It is nice to be the expert (reputation)
• Increasing your research ability (practice makes perfect)
• You want a job or a promotion
What is the common way in writing?….IMRAD format
The IMRAD format has developed within the past 120 years and is the best
choice for writing scientific papers.

Actually, the IMRAD format was developed in order to ensure the

reproducibility of experiments; something which had become a fundamental
principle in the philosophy of science in the late 19th century.

In the IMRAD format the text is structured in the following way:

Introduction: What question was studied and why?...What problem was

studied?....What others and you did?....Your study area.
Methods: How was the problem studied?...How do you did it?
Results: What were the findings? .....What did you find out?
and
Discussion: What do these findings mean?....What do your findings mean?
Typical paper….how can be structured?
A typical paper structured according to the IMRaD-format would
consist of the following parts:

• Title
• Author/s affiliation
• Abstract /Summary
• keywords
• Introduction
• A literature review (in some formats)
• Method
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusions
• Recommendations (optional)
• Acknowledgements
• References
• Appendices (optional)
Title:
A good title uses the fewest possible words that
adequately describe the contents of the paper.

The title should include:

• The subject of the paper
• The type of study (comparison, experiment, survey,

case study, etc.)

• The scope (details of the study’s limitations)

Avoid abbreviations in the title. Only abbreviations and

symbols that are more familiar than the words they stand
for, such as ASHRAE….should be placed in titles.
Author/s
Guidelines on authorship

Each author should have participated sufficiently in the work to take

public responsibility for the content…This participation must include the
following:

a. Conception or design, or analysis and interpretation of data or

both.
b. Drafting the article or revising it for critically important intellectual
content.
c. Final approval of the version to be published.

 Participation solely in the collection of data doesn’t justify

authorship.

 All elements of an article (a, b, and c above) critical to its main

conclusions must be attributable to at least one author
(correspondent author).
Abstract:
The abstract is an important part of the paper, normally contains:

 Background I
• Purpose and scope M
• Methods R
• Results a
D
• Conclusions

As you can see, the structure is the same as for the whole work (IMRaD).

Abstract and summary sometimes mean the same thing.

In academic writing an abstract is more common, briefly summarize the

paper.
The length of an abstract is generally between 100 and 200 words, and

Used to decide
a summary whether
is more to read
extensive the to
(one rest of the
three paper.
pages).
Gives editors, reviewers, others a first good impression.
Acknowledgements:
In a report the acknowledgements come after the
abstract or summary, but in scientific papers the
acknowledgements are most often placed at the end, just
before the references. The acknowledgements may
contain:

• Acknowledgement for any significant technical help that

you received
• Acknowledgement for financial support
• Thanks to key people who have played an important
part in your work

Avoid very extensive acknowledgements.

Introduction:
The Introduction normally contains:
• Background
- To help readers understand the paper
- To help readers appreciate the importance of the research
• Identifying the question(s) the research addressed
- Sometimes stated as a hypothesis or hypotheses

• Nature and scope of the problem: What is the problem and why is it
important to study?

• Literature review: What has already been done? Review of the relevant
literature.

• Methods: What methods have been used and why?

• Results: State the principal results.

• Conclusions: State the principal conclusions.

As you can see this is again the IMRaD structure. And it is also quite
similar to the abstract.
Structure of the Introduction

• Introduction typically should be funnel-shaped, moving from general

to specific
• A common structure:
– Information on importance of topic
– Highlights of relevant previous research & studies
– Identification of unanswered question(s)
– Approach you used to seek the answer(s)
– (In some fields) your main findings
Method:
The Methods section should give full details of data collection,
experimental design, sampling techniques, and so on.

In a case study it is important to elaborate on the rationale for

selection of the case to study. In the natural sciences this section is
often called Materials and Methods.

In the social sciences it is common to introduce a section called

Theory and Methods, sometimes divided in two sections:
Theoretical Framework and Methods.

The Methods section is normally written in the past tense.

Purposes of the Methods Section

• To allow others to replicate what you did

– In order to test it
– In order to do further research

• To allow others to evaluate what you did

– To determine whether the conclusions seem valid
– To determine whether the findings seem applicable to other
situations
Methods: Amount of Detail to Use

• For well-known methods: name of method, citation of reference

• For methods previously described but not well known: brief

description of method, citation of reference

• For methods that you yourself devise (innovated method): relatively

detailed description
A Suggestion

Look at the Methods sections of some papers in your target

journal. Use them as models.
Results:

It is a core of the paper.

- Should summarize findings rather than providing data in great detail
- Should present results but not comment on them

In the Results section the reader is told what your findings

were. It is not enough to present your findings in a table or a
graph, you need to interpret them for your reader.

Figures and tables must be numbered and labeled and referred

to in the text.

If you have done a case study this part of your paper will tend to
be quite extensive. Case studies require a detailed description of
the case.

(Note: Some journals combine the Results and the Discussion.)

Tables: A Few Suggestions

• Use tables only if text will not suffice.

• Design tables to be understandable without the text.
• If a paper includes a series of tables, use the same format for each.
• Be sure to follow the instructions to authors.
Figures: A Few Suggestions

• Use figures (graphs, diagrams, maps, photographs, etc) only if they

will help convey your information.
• Avoid including too much information in one figure.
• Make sure any lettering will be large enough once published.
• Follow the journal’s instructions.
Discussion/Conclusion
 One of the more difficult parts to write, because have more choice of
what to say
 Often should begin with a brief summary of the main findings
 Should answer the question(s) stated in the introduction
 Sometimes is followed by a conclusions section

 The Discussion/Conclusion section should discuss the results: not

summarize them. Discuss principles, relationships, and generalizations shown by

the result.
 This section is normally organized according to some kind of logical system: for
instance, past-to-present, general-to-specific, theoretical-to-practical.

 The discussion might be written in a more personal manner than the rest
of the paper.

 It is also a good idea to mention possible future work (although this

could be placed in a separate Recommendations section instead).
The Discussion: Some Possible Content

• Strengths of the study

– For example, superior methods, extensive data
• Limitations of the study
– For example: small sample size, short follow-up, incomplete data,
possible sources of bias, problems with experimental procedures
– Better to mention limitations than for peer reviewers and readers to think
that you’re unaware of them
– If the limitations seem unlikely to affect the conclusions, can explain why

• Relationship to findings of other research—for example:

 Similarities to previous findings (your own, others’, or both)
 Differences from previous findings
 Possible reasons for similarities and differences
The Discussion: Some other Possible Content

• Relationship of the findings to theories or models:

 Do the findings support them?
 Do they refute them?
 Do they suggest modifications?

• Other research needed—for example:

 To address questions still unanswered
 To address new questions raised by the findings

• Other
The Discussion: Structure

 Typically should move from specific to general (opposite of

introduction)

 Beware of excessive length

Acknowledgments

 The place to thank people who contributed to the

research but whose contributions don’t qualify them for

authorship

 Obtain permission before listing people

 Sometimes also the place to mention sources of

financial support
References and Appendices:
In the Reference section all references must be listed. The reference

system must:

• Give full details (author or authors, year of publication, title and publisher)
• Be consistent

Be sure to have all the references in the list and no “extra” references.

In the Appendices you may include detailed tables, graphs or

documents too long to include in the report itself. If you have used a
questionnaire, it is normally placed in the appendices.
The cycle of writing

Abstract References

Tentative Discussion
Revise
Title process

Methods Introduction

Results
Write in what order?

• Title
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Methods
• Results
• Discussion
• Acknowledgements
• References
Before Publishing….?!
Some Questions That Editors and Peer Reviewers Consider

 Does the research address an important unanswered

question?
 Is the question of broad enough interest?
 Are the methods appropriate?
 Have ethical standards been met?
 Are the results well enough documented?
 Are the conclusions reasonable?
 Is the paper well written?
Some Other Factors Affecting the Publishing Ability

• suitability for the journal chosen

• Consistency with the journal’s instructions

• Macro aspects of the writing (organization, etc)

• Micro aspects of the writing (word choice, grammar,

spelling, punctuation, etc)
Identifying a Target Journal

• Decide early (before drafting the paper). Do not write

the paper and then look for a journal. (Why?)

• Look for journals that have published work similar to

yours.

• Consider journals that have published work you cite.

Selecting a Journal….Some Factors to Consider

• Audience
• Prestige
• Access
• Impact
• Publication time
• Technical quality
• Likelihood of acceptance
Using the Journal’s Instructions

• Read the instructions to authors before starting to

prepare your paper.

• Consult the instructions while preparing your paper.

• Check the instructions again before submitting your

paper.
Some Questions the Instructions may answer
 What categories of article does the journal publish?
 What is the maximum length of articles?
 Does the journal include abstracts? If so, what is the
maximum length?
 What sections should the article include? What are the

guidelines for each?

 What guidelines for writing style should be followed?
Beyond the Instructions……?!

o Look at some recent issues of the journal.

o In the journal, look at some papers that present research

analogous to yours.

o Doing so, can help you gear your paper to the journal.
To achieve a natural and effective writing style, adhere to
the following principles:

1. Write simply…Use plain English words rather than

nonstandard technical jargon or foreign phrases.
2. Use the active voice.
3. Use standard technical terms correctly.
4. Avoid long sentences and extremely long (or short)
paragraphs.
5. Remember that the main objective is to communicate
your ideas clearly to your audience.
6. Seek guidance from others in your field who are more
experienced in publishing journal articles.
The Essentials
• The essentials are content, organization, and clarity.

• If a paper has excellent content, well organized, and

clear, it is likely to be accepted even if the English is fair.

• If a paper has poor content, badly organized, or unclear,

it is likely to be rejected even if the English is excellent.
Before Submitting Your Paper…Be Sure!

 Make sure the abstract is consistent with the rest of

your paper.
 Revise, revise, revise the paper.
 Show the paper to other people, and revise it some
more.
 Re-check the journal’s instructions to authors.
Resources

• Day, RA. (1998) How to write and publish a scientific

paper,” 5th edition, Oryx Press.

• Hale, C. (1999) Sin and syntax: How to craft wickedly

effective prose. New York: Broadway Books.

• Menzel, D. H., H. M. Jones, and L. G. Boyd. (1961) Writing a

technical paper. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

• Zinsser, W. (1998) On writing well: An informal guide to

writing nonfiction. 6th ed. New York: HarperCollins
Publishers.
“There is no way to get
experience except
through experience.”
Supas