Physical and urban

Infrastructure

H M K G G Bandara
Consultant (Road & Transport)
Road and Highways
Development in Transportation
• Transportation of Ceylon prior to 1850 remained as it had
for several centuries
• Economy was one of local consumption
• Distance were not great
• Speed not essential
• A system of main roads did exist connecting principal
towns
• With the shifting of economic climate towards export of
raw material such as rubber, coffee, tea, coconut more
rapid and efficient means of transport were required
• Marine shipments along coastal and inland waterways
• Bullock cart and railway on land
 Connected Administrative
Centres

Centred on Port for Export/Import

Based on Tea/Rubber as Export

crops rather than those for local
consumption

Road Network in Mid 19th

Century

  Colonial Economy on Track, Prof. Indrani Munasinghe

Source : The Source : The Colonial Economy on Track,
01/03/2021
Prof. Indrani Munasinghe 4
 Development in Transportation
• Early in the 19th century the motor vehicle – Lorry
altered the concept of passenger and goods
transportation
• Road construction preceded vehicles, because of
the need for permanent roads which could
withstand the torrential rains
• By 1905 there were 3765 miles of major roads in
Ceylon ( Sri Lanka)
Road Development
• The first passenger car was imported into Sri Lanka
(Ceylon ) in 1902

• By the time of the advent of the motor lorry in 1907,

the beginnings of a planned constructed, all-weather,
motorable road system had been started

• The road system was gradually and progressively

extended and improved so that during the period
after 1945, it was reasonably able to accommodate
an unprecedented motor vehicle growth
Road lengths in selected years
1946 1963 1971 1981 1991 1996

All roads 10,730 20,123 21,496 65,890 94,651 100,000

“A” class 1,400 1,800 2,201 3,798 4,116 4,220

‘B’ class 1,300 2,700 3,100 5,059 6,465 6,908

‘C’ class 1,800 3,500 4,488 10,856 5,012 8,457

‘D’ class 2,600 3,800 2,972 7,606 9,078 5,346

Others 3,630 8,413 8,735 38,571 69,980 75,069

Sources: Arjuna Atlas Sri Lanka, RDA, Central Bank of Sri Lanka
 Historical Land Marks
• First car was imported to Ceylon in 1902
• Motor Lorry came in 1907
• Bridge of boats near Colombo to cross the Kelani River was
completed in the year 1822. The bridge of boats was used
till 1895
• The Kandy road via Kurunegala and Galagedara was
completed in the year 1831
• The Kandy road through Kadugannawa also completed in
the year 1831. The construction of the road took about
eleven years
• The first lattice girder bridge by the name Victoria Bridge
was built in 1895 over the Kelani River
Bridge of Boats
Victoriya Bridge
 Evolution of Kaleni Bridge
• Japan-Sri Lanka Friendship Bridge
• Reasons to replace
• To cater for the increasing traffic demand with enhanced capacity. Total
number of lanes 4nos.
• Japan – Sri Lanka friendship Bridge was built under two phases
and open to traffic in September 2000.
•
The History of Formulation of Transportation Policies
for Sri Lanka
Objectives of Road Construction – British Era
The British had several motives in developing a transport network in the island.

First three decades of the nineteenth century – Political and Military

considerations.
• Roads constructed to hold the island together as a single unit.

• Colombo-Trincomalee road was built to reduce the cost of moving

troops and supplies round the island.
• Roads constructed to link the garrisons in several inaccessible areas
to Colombo.
12
 The History of Formulation of Transportation
Policies for Sri Lanka
• With the establishment of centralized political authority, Economic
and Commercial considerations were given the priority
Trade
Plantation Agriculture
Peasant Agriculture
• However, possibility of toll revenue in the construction of many major
roads was a major factor taken into consideration.
• The economic policies, tax, and land use policies made strong
influence on the decisions related to road construction and
maintenance
• However, it can be evidently proven that more money was spent and
more roads were constructed in the plantation districts. They were
also favored with better roads
01/03/2021 13
 Land Transport -Road Network in Sri Lanka

Total Road length Approximately 116,000 km

National Highways------------------------------ 12,165 km

•Class “A” Roads - 4220.0 km
•Class “B” Roads - 7800.0 km
•Class “E” Expressways – 160 km
•Under Road Development Authority

Provincial Roads (Class C & D )----------------- 15,532 km

Pradeshiya Sabah/Local Government Roads--- 84,380 km

Other Sectors---------------------------------------- 4,000 km
(Mainly Irrigation, Mahaweli & Estate roads)
 Road Densities of Selected
South Asian Countries
Road
Country Density in
km/km2
Bangladesh 1.36
Bhutan 0.05
India 0.73
Nepal 0.06
Sri Lanka 1.50
Pakistan 0.32
Source: International Road Federation, World Road Statistics – 2001 Edition
Road distribution
Class “A” & “B”
Roads
 Provincial Distribution of
National Road Network
Roads
Province
A Class B Class Total
Western 374.48 1208.75 1583.23
Central 408.57 1330.79 1739.36
Southern
346.88 1018.5 1365.38
Northern 734.49 524.12 1258.61
Eastern 619.55 551.13 1170.68
North Western 353.22 971.09 1324.31
North Central 495.20 698.64 1193.84
Uva 471.04 693.19 1164.23
Sabaragamuwa 415.57 804.18 1219.75
• Road lengths in kms
Total 4219 7800.39 12019.39
 Proposed
Expressway
Network
In addition to national
Highway Network , it
has been planned to
develop approximately
800kms of Expressway
network for Sri Lanka
to augment the Road
Network & presently
under different stages
of development
ACCESS AND MOBILITY
• Access is a fixed requirement, necessary at both
ends of any trip.
• Mobility along the path of such trips is defined in
terms of "level of service." It can incorporate a wide
range of indicators:
• Road condition,
• Travel speed,
• Degree of congestion, and so forth.
 Classification

• Arterials- emphasize the mobility

function and should have the
highest traffic volumes, the
greatest amount of commercial
traffic, and the longest average trip
lengths.
• local roads- emphasize the land
access function
• collectors -offer a compromise
between both functions
Classification
PURPOSES OF FUNCTIONAL
CLASSIFICATION
• Delineation of public responsibilities in the provision and standard of public
roads.
• Assignment of a road’s ownership and responsibility for its management
and financing.
• System planning for the road using travel modes, including non-motorized
traffic; access management (access control); and, coordination with other
modes of transport.
• Assistance to road users for selecting a travel route from origin to
destination.
• Assignment of (uniform) minimum standards, including permissible vehicle
axle loads, weights and dimensions.
• Determination of the size of the public road network and its quality
commensurate with what the country can afford at the time.
CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE
AND PROCESS
• Location of centers considering
• for administration, social and economic activities such
as education and health, commerce and trade,
manufacturing, private and public services, and
important transport junctions such as ports, rail
stations and border crossings.
• Divide them into groups by their importance at national,
regional, provincial, and district level
• Provide standards-It is important that the standards
adopted are linked to current road standards and what the
country can afford at the time.
ACCESS AND MOBILITY
 Functional Classification

• Demand for road access changes with economic growth

and increasing prosperity, with relocation of population,
economic activities and trade routes, and with expansion
of urban areas and concerns for the environment.
• The functional classification must thus be updated
periodically to take account of changes in transport
demands and the road network to fulfill its role as a
management tool.
Vehicle Trips between Districts/day
2011 2031

26
Classification system
• Countries often have their own names for classes
• Arterials:
• Motorways and other divided arterials;
• Principal arterials;
• Minor arterials
• Collectors:
• Major collectors;
• Minor collectors
• Locals:
• Public local roads;
• Private local roads;
• Other: Bicycle and pedestrian paths
Road network Sri Lanka
• We have very good access function
• But Mobility is very limited
• Need to carry out functional classification
Dominant Modes of Land Transportation in Sri
Lanka
1. Road
2. Rail
Demand Share

Demand Road Rail

Passenger Demand 92% 8%
Freight Demand 98% 2%
TRANSPORT DEMAND FOR ROADS

• Passenger Transport = 92%

• Freight Transport = 98 %
Road Transport has advantages over Railway
- Well spread road network
- Personalized use of road transport
- Reliability attached to road transport
- Deterioration of rail transport
-Low direct and indirect cost involve in road
transport
 TRANSPORT DEMAND FOR ROADS Cont….

• Increase in Vehicle
Vehi-population

4000000

Population 3500000

3000000

Vehicle population
2500000
Vehicle increase by 2000000

1500000
- Capacity (GVW)
1000000

- Size 500000

0
- Speed 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
Year
Vehi-population

Increase in income of the

people GDP pre Capita (US$)
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
 Deterioration of public services 200
0
- Start of using motor bicycle 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
STRATAGY FOR
MEETING THE DEMAND CONSIDERED
• Major rehabilitation and improvements including
realignment and deviation to existing trunk & main
roads
• Construction of system of Ring Roads / Bye-Pass to
city , Major Towns and Urban Centres
• Construction of Expressways / Highways as
alternative to supplement the trunk roads
• Improvement to Urban Traffic Flows
 Proposed
Expressway
Network
It has been planned to
develop approximately
800kms of Expressway
network for Sri Lanka to
augment the Road
Network. Presently,
construction of
Expressway network is
under different stages of
development.
Development of expressways
• With the liberalization of vehicle imports in 1978, the active
vehicle fleet has increased in very rapid rate
• Traffic volumes on the trunk road system of the country has
increased considerably
• It has been realized that rehabilitation of existing trunk
route system to cope up with future traffic needs at a
meaning full level of service is a daunting task mainly due to
the inherent deficiencies in their alignment and widths that
cannot be rectified without resorting to large scale
acquisition and demolition of buildings and re-locating
service utilities involving greater social and economic
repercussions.
Development of expressways
• The existing system to trunk roads will not be
adequate to cater for the increasing traffic demand
as some of the important trunk roads have reached
the capacity at that time
• To provide this additional capacity the expressway
network was development
 Construction of Expressways/Highways
• Construction of first ever Expressway in Sri Lanka , Southern Expressway- From Colombo
to Galle has been completed and opened to public on 27 th of November 2011 and
Balance section from Galle to Matara opened for public on 15 th March 2014.

• Colombo – Katunayake expressway opened for the public on 27 th October 2013.

• Phase I of Outer Circular Highway opened for public on 8th March 2014.

• The other Expressway and Highway projects which are at various stages of construction
at the moment are;

• Balance sections of Outer Circular Highway to the city of Colombo

• Southern Expressway Extension with link to Hambantota
• Expressway to Kandy and Northern
• Hambantota - Batticaloa Expressway
• Expressway link to Ratnapura
Southern Expressway
 The location map of
Southern
Expressway
(STDP)
Total length =126.3 km +4.0
km Galle access road
Total cost = Rs 95.3 bn

Interchangers = 11 nos

For the use of the expressway it is

necessary to pay a fee. The fee is
based on the length of use of the
expressway
Interchanges, Traffic Operation Centre & Emergency Centres

Kurundgahahetekma
Kahatuduwa

Baddegama
Gelanigama

Dodangoda

Pinnaduwa
Welipenna
Kottawa

5.93 7.745 21.112 11.213 21.575 12.2 16.105

9.3
6.98 14.595 Galle

Bridge (52.980 km)

Bandaragama (HO) Interchange(IC)
Bentota Ganga

IC with Emergency Center

IC with Operation Center
Police Patrolling
All distances in km RDA Patrolling Crew
OUTER CIRCULAR HIGHWAY
The project will be implemented on 3
sections

The third section from Kadawatha to

Kerawalapitiya has a length of 9.2 km.
(5.9 elevated) The tentative cost of this
section is Rs. 66.69 bn. It is expected to
get funding assistance from China for the
construction of the section

Second section has a length of 8.9 km

( 4.9km Elevated). Construction works are
in progress under JICA funding. Contract
Price is Rs 44.88 bn
Construction is ongoing for the first section of
11 km (3.2 km elevated) with funding
assistance from JICA. Cost for this section is
Rs.24.9bn.
OCH Project Phase I

Via duct Section

OCH Project Phase I

Kottawa IC
 LOCATION MAP

KATUNAYAKE I.C

JA – ELA I.C.

PELIYAGODA I.C.

NEW KELANI
BRIDGE I.C.
 Colombo – Katunayake Expressway Project

• Loan Funding: Exim Bank of China

• Loan Amount: US$ 248.2 Mn
• Total Project Cost: US$ 292 Mn
• Total Length (km): 25.8
• Numbers of lanes: 4
• Maximum allowable Speed : 100 km/h
• Contractor: China Metallurgical Group Corporation (MCC)

46
Colombo – Katunayake Expressway
Cont’d

• Photographs
Southern
Expressway
Extension
EXTENSION OF SOUTHERN HIGHWAY AND
LINK TO HAMBANTOTA

• Length : 96 km from Godagama (Matara) to Mattala

and Hambantota
• Numbers of Lanes : 4
• Numbers of interchanges : 8
• Current Status :
• Four commercial contracts has been signed and
arrangement of funding is in progress

49
Extension of Southern Expressway

50
Colombo - Kandy Highway with
Kurunegala Link
Colombo - Kandy Highway with Kurunegala
Link )
Colombo - Kandy Highway with
Kurunegala Link
Interchange
Stag Lengt
Name
e h (km) No Name
s
Enderamulla / Enderamulla/(Kadawatha), Gampaha,
I (Kadawatha)- 53 5
Veyangoda, Mirigama, Ambepussa
Ambepussa
Mirigama, Nalakagamuwa, Danbokka,
II Mirigama - Kurunegala 38 4
Kurunegala
III Pothuhera – Kandy 51 5 Pothuhera, Rambukkana, Galagedara,
Aladeniya, Gannoruwa
Kurunegala, Melsiripura, Galewela,
IV Kurunegala - Dambulla 60 4 Dambulla

•Total Length : 202 km (including Kurunegala Link)

 HAMBANTOTA – BATTICALOA
EXPRESSWAY

• With the growing importance of Batticaloa as a tourist

destination, requirement of high speed link between
Batticaloa and Hambantota has been identified in the
National Physical Planning Policy.
• Accordingly, it has been decided to start this
Expressway from Mattala Airport linking Southern
Highway Extension and to end about 11km away from
Batticaloa town with the view of continuing towards the
city of Trincomalee in the future.
 HAMBANTOTA – BATTICALOA
EXPRESSWAY

• It is required to carry out a comprehensive

feasibility study to identify most appropriate trace
for the expressway
• Length will be around 182km
• It is proposed to provide minimum of
4-lane facility
• Cost will be around Rs 150 billion
 National Physical Planning
Policy
Settlement-2030

25 million people

70% urban (17.5 m)
30% rural (7.5 m)
80% in Metro Cities and District
Capitals (14 m)
20% in other towns and villages
(3.5 m)
Protect Agricultural Land
Reduce Land fragmentation
Reduce cost of Infrastructure
Protect the environment
Create a strong network of
cities, towns and villages
 Road Transport
• Develop bus networks
to improve inter-city and
intra-city connections.
• Maintain and
rehabilitate the existing
road network
• Construct regional
highways between
Metro Cities and District
Capitals.
Understanding of Expressways
• Roads are not pure public goods
• Expressways do not have the mechanism of the market
which decides the supply, demand and therefore price
• Expressway construction is planned according to the
national policy.
• Expressways are consume large part of funds
• It provides speed, safety and convenience
• By reducing travel time expressway stimulate the
distribution of the population and increase the
mobility of the road network.
Understanding of Expressways
• Expressway provides better regional and economic
communication
• Provide industrial and agriculture developments
• Expressways encourage tourism development
• It create new jobs
Road Maintenance
Road Maintenance
• Roads, and means of transport, make a crucial
contribution to economic development and growth
and bring important social benefits. Poorly
maintained roads constrain mobility, significantly
raise vehicle operating costs, increase accident
rates and their associated human and property
costs, and aggravate isolation, poverty, poor health,
and illiteracy in rural communities.
 Road Maintenance
• Roads are among the most important public assets
in many countries. Road improvements bring
immediate and sometimes dramatic benefits to
road users through improved access to hospitals,
schools, and markets; improved comfort, speed,
and safety; and lower vehicle operating costs.
• For these benefits to be sustained, road
improvements must be followed by a well-planned
program of maintenance. Without regular
maintenance, roads can rapidly fall into disrepair,
preventing realization of the longer term impacts of
road improvements on development,
Road Maintenance
• many countries have tended to favor new
construction, rehabilitation, or reconstruction of
roads over maintenance.
• Much of the capital cost of road construction is
financed by donor funds, with low perceived cost to
the country but high real costs, while maintenance
is funded locally, requiring difficult and unpopular
tax mobilization.
 Road Maintenance
Timely and appropriate management offers
benefits to everyone
• When roads are in poor condition every dollar not spent
on road conservation will cost:
• $ 3 to road users in additional vehicle operating
costs and
• $ 2 to the road administration (or the tax payer) in
reconstruction and rehabilitation costs.
WHAT IS MAINTENANCE?
• The goal of maintenance is to preserve the asset, not
to upgrade it. Unlike major road works, maintenance
must be done regularly.
• Road maintenance comprises “activities to keep
pavement, shoulders, slopes, drainage facilities and all
other structures and property within the road margins
as near as possible to their as-constructed or renewed
condition”
• For management and operational convenience, road
maintenance is categorized as routine, Recurrent,
periodic, and urgent.
 Managing the Life Cycle
• There are many options
• Good Asset Management is about making the right choices

No Routine With Routine With Preventative

Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance
Excellent
Condition
acceptable
Min

Time
Classification of maintenance
activities

Can be classified depending on the nature of the

each activity and the frequency of applying
Routine maintenance
Recurrent maintenance
Periodic maintenance
Urgent and emergency maintenance
 Road surface elements may change on class of roads ,terrain,
alignment, situation & environmental condition

Carriageway
Shoulders
Verges(between shoulder & drain)
Drains
Road reservations
Embankment slopes
Cut slopes
Foot walks
Centre medians
 MAINTANANCE ACTIVITIES 0F A ROAD

ROAD MAINTANANCE

ROUTINE URGENT PERIODIC RECURRENT

Routine / Recurrent maintenance
• comprises small-scale works conducted regularly,
aims “to ensure the daily passability and safety of
existing roads in the short-run and to prevent
premature deterioration of the roads”
.
Routine Maintenance
• Activities carried out for general upkeep of the road
network irrespective of road characteristics and the
traffic.
• Cutting grass, weeding, jungle clearing, filling scoured
area and planting grass
• Clearing and re-cutting drains
• Cutting scupper drains and building scour controls
• Cleaning and de-silting culverts
• Cleaning and painting of bridges and structures
• Cleaning and painting of road furniture
Recurrent maintenance
• Activities to be carried out throughout the year but
frequency depend on damaging effect of traffic and
rain fall
• Paved roads
• Repair potholes, rutting, depressions, cracks and surface
irregularities
• Correction of edges of pavement and shoulder edges
• Unpaved roads
• Repair potholes, rutting, depressions and erosion gullies
• Dragging, brushing and lightly grading to remove
unevenness and corrugations
Periodic maintenance
• This covers activities on a section of road at regular and
relatively long intervals, aims “to preserve the structural
integrity of the road. These operations tend to be large scale,
requiring specialized equipment and skilled personnel. They cost
more than routine maintenance works and require specific
identification and planning for implementation and often even
design.
• Activities can be classified as preventive, resurfacing, overlay,
and pavement reconstruction. Resealing and overlay works are
generally undertaken in response to measured deterioration in
road conditions.
• For a paved road repaving is needed about every eight years; for
a gravel road re-graveling is needed about every three years.
 TYPICAL DISTRESSES IN ASPHALT PAVEMENTS

Roughness
Severe damage
Surface Deformation
Edge Damage
Cracking
Potholes
Roughness

• Macro level undulation

of the surface
• Measured in m/km in
International
Roughness Index
Severe Damage-Paved Roads
Severe Damages in
paved roads can be due
to several reasons

1.Due to landslips

2.Due to extensive
potholes and poor
maintenance of drains
3. Due to tidal waves

4.Due to un-maintained drains and lack of

vegetation control
SURFACE DEFORMATION AND
RUTTING-PAVED ROADS

Deformation is a change in a road surface from the

constructed profile.

Deformation types:

Corrugation
Depressions
Raveling
Shoving
SURFACE DEFORMATION WITH DEPRESSIONS

Corrugation

Deformation

Depression
SHOVING RAVELLING
 CORRUGATION

•ASSOCIATED WITH SLIPPAGE MECHANISM

•POOR BOND BETWEEN THE SURFACE AND
UNDERLAYING LAYER
•TOO MUCH OR TOO LITTLE TACK COAT
•STEEP GRADES/INTERSECTIONS.
•ACCELERATION/BRAKING EXERT SURFACE
TRACTION FORCES
•EG:BUS STOPS & INTERSECTIONS
DEPRESSION/RUTTING
DEPRESSION
• Reasons for depressions
• Poor drainage of underneath layers
• Use of excessive filler materials
• User of too many rounded partials in coarse and fine
aggregates
• High asphalt content of the mix
 POTHOLE
Pothole formation is often related to problems of
drainage. However ,if extensive pothole formation is
observed then the cause may be due to general
pavement deterioration or inadequate pavement
thickness.

Shallow pothole -depth<20mm

Medium pothole -20mm<depth<75mm

Deep pothole -depth>75mm

POTHOLE
POTHOLE REPAIR PROCESS

Step 1 - the edges are

cut by a disc saw to
achieve a good joint
between the new
material and existing
road surface
Step 2 - the defective
road surface is
broken away and
loaded on to lorry for
safe disposal
Step 3 - the area is
swept clear of any
further loose material
and water
Step 4 - the vertical
edges are painted
with a bitumen
based edge sealant
to achieve a good
bond and
waterproof the joint
Step 5 - the hot
surfacing material is
laid into the patch to
the required level
Step 7 - The
surfacing material
is compacted to
the required
standard
Step 6 - the work
area is swept clean
of debris and
overspill
Step 8 -
Overbanding tape
is used to seal the
joint and stop the
ingress of water
 Edge Cracking
• Description
• Edge cracking is similar to
alligator cracking only
located within 1 to 2 feet
of the edge of the
pavement. Failure begins at
the edge of the pavement
and progresses toward the
wheel path. Pavement
edge distress can result in
worsening of the wheel
path condition and allow
moisture into the subgrade
soils and base materials.
• Possible Causes
• Traffic Loading
• Environmental
• Construction Related
• Low Shoulder
• High Shoulder Holding
Water
• Maintenance Treatments
• Crack Fill
• Thin Cold Mix Overlay
• Shoulder Maintenance
EDGE FAILURES
Sangupitty Jetty on Navatkuli – Kerative – Mannar Road
EDGE SUPPORT IS NECESSARY
 CRACKING-PAVED ROADS
Types of pavement cracks:
• Block and Alligator
(crocodile ) cracking
• These cracks occurs in
rectangular or cells or blocks
• Spacing of the blocks/cells
varies for crocodile cracking
and for block cracking
• Longitudinal, diagonal and
transverse cracking
• These cracks are usually
reflective cracks caused by
shrinkage or movement in the
base, sub base or sub grade.
 ALLIGATOR CRACKING
ALLIGATOR CRACKS ARE GENERALLY CAUSED BY THE MOVEMENT OF THE
PAVEMENT LAYERS OR OF THE SUBGRADE.
ANOTHER REASON FOR THIS CRACK IS PROBABLY DUE TO POOR SUPPORT
FROM THE UNDELAYING LAYERS MAY BE CAUSED BY MOISTURE IN THE
SUBGRADE.
ALSO FAILURE OCCURS DUE TO LIMITS OF ITS FATIGUE LIFE BY REPETITIVE
AXLE LOAD APPLICATIONS.
CRACKING-PAVED ROADS

Crocodile Cracking Transverse Crack (advance stage)

Longitudinal Cracking Transverse Cracking

CRACK SEALING
 DRAINAGE MAINTENANCE
Drainage is most important aspect that determine the
performance of a road and failure of roads is often attributed
to poor drainage
The Objectives of road drainage could be broadly classified as
 Prevention of accumulation of water on or by the roadway
 Interception of ground water from entering the road
structure from beneath
 Interception of surface water from flowing into the
roadway.
 Prevention of erosion of the roadway edges, drains,
embankment slopes, cut slopes and the road side.
 Convey river and stream water across the road.
 Strom water to surface –
DRAINAGE too fast erosion, too slow
penetrate to structure

When water enter in to the road

structure it weaken the road
structure and damage with
Traffic
Surface slopes
• Paved road cross falls- 2-3 %
• Gravel road cross falls-4-6 %
• Shoulders – Desirable maximum 6%

• Type of Drains
• Scupper Drains
• Side drains
TYPE OF DRAINS

Angle Drains

Saucer Drains

Drainage Ditches

Catch Drains
FOR HIGH WATER TABLE

SUBGRADE
 SURFACE DRAINAGE
• Activities
Construction of a culvert, Catch pits and Cascade to divert
surface water.
Construction of trench drains,
Removal of over burden at head of landslide,
Filling “toe” to give a toe support,
Construction of surface drain, landscaping and turfing.
Construction of gabion walls along the stream
Construction of horizontal drains.
Clearing and training the stream,
 Horizontal Drains

Gabion wall

Surface Drains

Trench drain
DRAINAGE PROBLEM
DRAINAGE PROBLEM
Periodic Maintenance
• Surface strength is evaluated and suitable
treatment is decided
• SBST
• DBST
• AC
• The period of application is decided based on type
of pavement, design life, traffic load
 Maintenance of unpaved roads
• Earth roads • Maintenance works
• Gravel roads
• Pothole patching
• Defects
• Loss of shapes • Grading
• Rutting • Re-graveling
• Formation of potholes
and depressions
• Formation of
corrugations
• Formation of erosion
gullies
MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGEs,
CAUSEWAYS AND CULVERTS
Important of bridge maintenance
• Bridges are key element in road network and is a major
investment of resources
• Due to their strategic locations over natural or manmade
obstacles any failure of bridges may limit or severely
disrupt traffic flow in the network creating economic
losses
• Over the time bridge will deteriorate and become unfit
for its intended purpose if no actions are taken to
maintain, rehabilitate or strengthen
• LIFE SPAN IS 75-100 YEARS
• Bad maintenance will reduce life drastically
Inspection of Bridges
• Substructure all
• Superstructure steel
bridges
Scour of river beds bridges
Settlement of Jammed or defective
foundation bearing
Development of Corrosion of
cracks in abutments, members
wing walls, piers and Water leakage
corrosion of steel
supports Expansion joints
Growing of faulty or ineffective
vegetation  Paint scaling off
from steel girders
Inspection of Bridges- Concrete Bridges-
superstructure
• Cracks of components
• Blocking of expansion
joints
• Spoiling of concrete
Culvert damage

Culvert Sinking of pavement (about 1m×1m)

Primary reinforcement has broken. Concrete top slab has been damaged.

All almost reinforcement bars are exposed by the cover concrete's coming off.
Damage situation under top slab. Exposure of reinforcement bars. The corrosion of the reinforcement proceeds, and bars are broken.
 Corrosion of steel is advanced. Concrete is deteriorated.

Comments :
Immediate
reconstruction
(replacing slab) is
necessary
The surface of concrete and reinforcement bars peels off when touching
by the hand and falls..
 Routine Activities
Cleaning / Clearing:

Minor Repairs (Structural):

 
 Repair of loose / missing connectors and fixings
  Replace damaged planks
  Painting 
  Wood Preservation
Painting Masonry
Repair Barriers and safety features
 
 Periodic Activities:

Major Repairs:

 
·  Random Stone Filling

·  Retaining Wall
 
·  Riverbed Scour Apron
 
·  Gabions
Transportation
Transport
• Transport is essential to the functioning of any
society
• It influences the location and range of productive
and leisure activities
• It influences range and the provision of goods and
services
• It influences the quality of life
• Development of society is closely related with the
improved transport technology
Transport
• Car became marvelous instrument of personal
mobility
• It allow man to go where he likes, when he likes,
whatever the weather condition
• This created a situation of increase mobility
Transportation system
• Transportation activities take place on five major
systems
• Highways
• Railways
• Air
• Water
• Pipelines
• Each is divided in to specific modes
Transport of the country
 Present Transport system consists of Land, Sea
and Air transport
Transport in Sri Lanka is based mainly on the road network
which is centered on Sri Lanka's capital, Colombo
Under gone several changes with the socio
economic policies to come to present situation
 Up to 1950 it was a compact and simple
 In 1956 it was formed to government institutions
and continued till 1970
 In 1977 with implementation of open economic
system the transport was de-regularized and
privatised

01/03/2021 134
Policy of the Colonial Government- Railway
Construction
• The Government considered that the
construction of railways was necessary for the
advancement of production, trade and commerce
of the island.
• The reduction of transport costs were of
importance as cart charges were very high in
1870s.
• It is evident that the policy towards the
construction of railways in Sri Lanka was generally
based on advancing the economic prosperity of
the island.
01/03/2021 135
 Roads & Rail During Early
20th Century

• Source : The Colonial Economy on Track, Prof. Indrani Munasinghe  Source : The Colonial Economy on
Track, Prof. Indrani Munasinghe
01/03/2021 136
Rail Transport
• The railway network is largely a legacy of British
colonial rule and today only handles a small fraction of
the country's transport needs
• Service began in 1864, with the construction of the
Main Line from Colombo to Ambepussa, 54 kilometers
• The Railway was initially built to transport coffee and
tea from the hill country to Colombo for export.
• For many years, transporting such goods was the main
source of income on the line.
• In the 1960s, passenger traffic overtook freight as the
main source of revenue. The railway is now primarily
engaged in the transport of passengers, especially
commuters to and from Colombo.
 Savings on cost of transport per ton mile 1860

Cost of transport per Savings Railway

ton mile per ton rate as a
By cart By mile % of cart
railway rate
Rs. Cts. Cts. Rs.cts
Coffee 0.62 14.5 0.47 23.4%
Rice 1.25 17 1.08 13.6%
Manure 1.14 8.5 1.05 7.4%

Source: Roads & Railways in Sri Lanka By Prof. Indrani Munasinghe 138
 Revenue & Working Expenditure (1905)
Revenue Rs. As a % Working Exp. As a % Profits As A % of
of total Rs. of total Rs. total profit
Revenue W. Exp.
Main line 5,283,849.00 54.5 1,930,572.00 40.7 3,353,277.00 67.7
Southern line 1,672,294.00 17.2 1,098,312.00 23.2 573,982.00 11.5
Uva Line 1,419,985.00 14.6 833,272.00 16.6 586,713.00 11.8
Matale Line 178,240.00 1.8 153,953.00 3.3 24,287.00 0.5
Nothern Line 538,760.00 5.6 385,813.00 8.2 152,947.00 3.1
Kelani Valley 446,864.00 4.6 220,234.00 4.6 226,630.00 4.6
Line
Uda- 150,622.00 1.6 114,387.00 2.4 36,235.00 0.7
Pussellawa
Line
Total 9,690,614.00 100 4,736,543.00 100 4,954,110.00 100

Source: Roads & Railways in Sri Lanka By Prof. Indrani Munasinghe

139
Land Transport - Rail
• Opened in 1864

• Total Track length Broad

gauge – 1293km

• Double Track – 258

km
• Train km operated-
9.88 mn (2012)
• Passenger km -5039.3
mn(2012)

140
Source; National Transport statistics-2012- NTC
Rail Transport
 Rail Transport-Lines
• Main line
• Coastal Line
• Puttalam Line
• Kelani Valley Line
• Matale Line
• Northern Line
• Mannar Line
• Batticaloa Line
• Trincomalee Line
• Mihintale Line

An model of narrow gauge line

Metro transit and tram
• Early Trams
• The northern and central areas of the city of Colombo
had an electric tram car system, operated by the
Colombo Electric Tram Car and Lighting Company Ltd.
• This system commenced operations around 1900.
• For half a century, the trams dominated Colombo's
roads, carrying thousands of commuters.
• The tram system operated with 42" gauge track, that
was sunk into the road. The system had two tram
models in its rolling stock.
• After an infamous tram car strike, the Colombo
Municipal Council took over operations. Subsequently,
the tram car system was phased out and the system was
discontinued by 1960.
Land Transport -Vehicles
Vehicle Population 4,877,027 at the end of
year 2012 as per Registration.

In the year 2012

Registered vehicle fleet -2012
397,295 new vehicles
added to the fleet
Motor cars

Motor Tricycle
7%
6% 6% 1%10%
16% Motor Cycles
2%
Buses
Goods vehicles
Dual purpose vehicles 2 axle
52% Lorries
3 axle
4 axle
Land vehicles- 5 axle
Tractors
6 axle
Land vehicles-Trailers

01/03/2021 144
Land Transport – Bus Industry
History
 Cater to 94 % of demand
 Under gone several changes in the past in
response to socio economic policy changes
 In 1935 about 2000 buses were operating as
private venture
 In 1951 formation of private companies and
public companies
 1958 Nationalised all companies
 1979 Open to private sector again

01/03/2021 145
Land Transport – Bus Industry
History
• The history of Sri Lanka Transport Board goes back
to 1 January 1958, at the time known as the Ceylon
Transport Board (CTB).
• At its peak, it was the largest omnibus company in
the world - with about 7,000 buses and over 50,000
employees. With privatization in 1979, it
underwent a period of decline.
Land Transport – Bus Industry
Present system
 Two categories of operators
 Government owned 93 boards having 50 to 150
buses now converted to SLCTB
 Provide service to all level of routes even in
uneconomical routes with pre-arranged time
tables
 Private bus providers mainly with single bus
owner
 Mainly operation on profitable routes
 Urban and Intercity routes
 Not to a time table operate at peak period

01/03/2021 147
 Bus Operation
Operatio 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
nal data
SLTB Fleet 9018 9326 9125 8403 7821 7756
Avg. Buses 4129 4246 4482 4441 4365 4314
operated/day
Operated km-mn 304.9 313.7 335.86 341.62 340.84 337.8
3
Private Fleet 17,731 18665 18665 19805 19699 20444
Avg. Buses 12610 13116 13066 15884 16602 17129
operated/day
Operated km 607.2 631.8 629.5 765.3 799.9 825.3

Source; National Transport statistics-2012- NTC

148
 Land Transport –
Freight
Internal freight transport is dominated by road
transport catering to 98 % of the demand

Operated by private tracking

Rail takes only 1 % of the demand at present

Coastal shipping cater to balance freight transport

01/03/2021 149
 Sea Transport
Ports Vessels arrived Cargo handled
(2012) (MT(000))-2012
Colombo 3970 61,669
Galle 69 522
Trincomalee 161 2,859
Hambantota 34 20
Total 4134 65,070
Total container traffic =4,187,000 TEU (2012)
Transshipment container Traffic = 3,167,000 TEU (2012)

Dikkowitta Fishery Harbour –is the biggest fishery harbor in Asia

01/03/2021 150
01/03/2021 151
 Air Transport
 Total 19 air
ports in the
country

 Two
international
Airport

 17 domestic
airports

01/03/2021 Mattala Rajapaksa International Airport.

152
Air Transport
Airports with unpaved
Airports with paved runways runways
Runway length Numbers
Runway length Numbers 1,524 m to 2,437m 1
Over 3,047m 2 International
1,524 m to 6 Under 914m 3
2,437m
Total 4
914 m to 7
1,523m
Total 15
Other Transport
• Water Transport
• Sri Lanka has around 160 km of inland waterways
(primarily on rivers in the southwest), navigable by
shallow-draught boats
• Pipelines
• Sri Lanka has 62 km of pipelines for crude oil and
petroleum products (1987 figures)
 Dutch Canal System
Centred on the Port of
Colombo
Over 200kms in length

Development of Coconut
as an Export Industry Eg. Dutch Canal, St. Sebastian
Canal , Hamilton Canal etc.

01/03/2021 155
Urban Development
Urbanization
• With the industrial revolution civil life changed. Villages
became towns. Towns became cities. Population migrations
and population explosion
• As population increase need for efficient public transport
became evident.
• Advent of motor car about end of 19th century had little
affect mass movement and town development due to
affordability for cars
• With the mass production of cars after world war I changed
this situation
Urban Transport Planning
• Urban transport is an extremely complex area. It
has many dimensions, all of which need to be taken
into account if comprehensive solutions are to be
found to the Problems stemming from the growth
of cities.
• It is not simply a matter of building a highway or a
metro rail system. There must also be an
assessment of numerous other factors.
Terrain Safety Energy Use Land use Environment

Gender Health

Disabilities
Urban Transport Affordability

Human Behavior Livelihoods

Policies Finance Economics Engineering Technology

 Land Use
• Most planned cities have a master plan that lays out
how the land in different parts of the city will be used.
Some parts are designated primarily as business
districts and others as largely residential.
• Most well planned cities also have sections that have
trees, plants, and other green cover, such as parks.
• Some cities are sprawling –spread out over a large area
—where as others are compact and dense.
 Land Use
• Cities with heavily segregated residential and business
districts have longer Travel distances. Sprawling cities
also have long travel distances. In both cases, providing
transportation systems requires significant infrastructure
investments when compared to the requirements in
more compact cities.
• Many cities have adopted land use planning in which
business and residential districts are more closely
interspersed. This is known as mixed use planning. This
type of planning tends to reduce travel distances. Shorter
travel distances often mean that trips can be made by
walking or cycling instead of using motorized modes.
This, in turn, results in lower energy use and less
pollutants.
Environment
• Urban transport mode choices affect the environment. Cities
with a high level of dependence on personal motor vehicles
have a higher level of emissions and worse air Quality than
those that are less dependent on them.
• Cities with a higher share of public transport or non
motorized transport use have a lower level of emissions and
thus benefit from cleaner air.
 Environment
• Cities that have policies to ensure that their
vehicle fleets are well maintained tend to have
less pollution.
• Policies regarding fuel quality and regulations
relating to the amount of emissions allowed by a
motor vehicle also impact the environment.
• The major pollutants from motor vehicle exhaust
namely sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and
particulate matter have all been a concern in
large cities, though the intensity of their impact
has varied across countries and pollutants.
 Environment
• Today, climate change is becoming a global
concern.
• Transport accounts for around 14 percent of
human generated green house gas emissions.
These emissions contribute substantially to
global climate change.
• Unfortunately, most fuels used in meeting
transport demands are carbon based. Thus,
urban mobility is a growing contributor to green
house gas emissions and climate change.
Health

Air
quality has a Substantial impact on Human
health.
Estimates by the World Health Organization show that polluted
air is responsible for approximately 800,000 deaths in urban
areas every year.
Health
• The negative health impact tends to be more
severe on the poor, who are more exposed to
polluted air, as they often live on foot paths and
walk or cycle to meet their travel needs.
• Walking and cycling increases their exposure to the
polluted air, and the effort exerted by the body
entails harder breathing and, thus, a greater intake
of pollutants.
Affordability
• The cost of transport systems, and therefore
affordability, represents an important factor in
urban transport planning because people use the
systems so often.
• People need to use urban transport everyday,
unlike the case of intercity transport.
• Urban transport is used to reach workplaces and
educational institutions, markets, and doctors
• Cities with relatively lower per capita income
cannot afford to have expensive systems.
Affordability

Ensuring affordability means charging relatively low

fares, which, in turn, means the operator may not
be able to recover operating costs. This creates the
need for subsidies.
Livelihoods
• Urban transport is important to livelihoods because large
numbers of trips in urban areas are made for the purpose of
reaching a workplace.
• If transport costs are high, people are able to seek jobs only
within a limited area. Lower transport costs allow them to
look for job opportunities farther away from where they
live.
• The kind of transport systems in use also affect livelihoods
by affecting employment in the public transport system. For
example, large and extensive bus systems tend to employ
more people than do metro rail systems.
Technology
• Urban transport often involves a choice between multiple
technologies.
• Technology choices also involve decisions about fuel type,
kind of vehicle, and soon, making this an other dimension
of urban transport planning.
Technology
• The range of technology choices offered by public
transport runs the spectrum from buses sharing
road space with cars and bicycles to heavy rail
underground metro systems.
• Choices among technology options need to be
made on the basis of several factors, such as spatial
pattern, load factor, life cycle costs, and
environmental sensitivity.
 Engineering
• The availability of sound engineering and project management
capabilities is another dimension of urban transport planning
since number of infrastructure facilities must be built to meet
travel demand.
Amount of space Required
Economics
• Urban transport has an economics dimension. What makes
economic sense and what does not? What is the value of
urban transport to society as a whole, not just its users?
Questions such as these need to be answered to assess if
we are getting the best value for the investment made
Finance
• Money and financing are factors in the urban transport
planning process that raise important questions:
Finance
• What kind of additional taxes or levies need to be
imposed to raise resources for urban transport?
What other revenue streams exist?
• Who should pay for these investments?
• At what point in time should these investments be
made?

• Money and financing questions need to be

answered for a successful out come.
 Politics
• Politics and governance play important roles in urban transport planning,
particularly in democracies.
• Any government in power will tend to be attracted toward investments that
can help it in upcoming elections, even if it means a larger than necessary
expenditure on the facility to be created. Large and visible projects have often
helped candidates win elections.
• Fragmented governance—with responsibilities spread across multiple
agencies—can lead to serious problems in coordination. Such situations must
be corrected through reduced fragmentation and consolidation of
responsibilities among the different areas of urban transport.
 Human Behavior

• Human behavior and social image should be taken into

account in the planning process.
• In some countries, cycling and traveling by bus are
viewed as modes of transport for the poor. Therefore,
any one who has sufficient income is likely to acquire and
use a personal motor vehicle —viewed as a status symbol
—to demonstrate their higher income.
Human Behavior
• In other countries, people like the experience of being in their
own cars, even if having more cars on the road means being
stuck in traffic for hours.
• In yet others, cycling and walking are fashionable and viewed as
healthy and environmentally friendly modes of travel.
Human Behavior

• Issues of human behavior are also important when

determining such factors as
• How far people are willing to walk to reach a public transport
station,
• How much difficulty they are willing to tolerate in finding a
parking space,
• How much they are willing to pay for the use of facilities, and
• How much they value the physical exercise of walking.
 Disabilities
• In every city, a proportion of residents with disabilities confront inherent
difficulties with regard to transport.
• They may have a physical disability or be elderly, frail, or very young. Women
and others carrying babies might also require facilities or arrangements that
meet their particular needs.
• The transport system must not ignore the special needs of the segments of the
population with disabilities.
 Gender
• Gender is an important dimension in urban transport planning.
• Studies have shown that the travel times of women and the nature of their
trips are different from those of men. In some societies ,women need to be
protected from harassment. In others, social customs require that women
and men not share seats.
• Urban transport should take in to account the different travel needs of
women and men.
 Terrain

• Terrain is important in determining the kind of transport

system in a city.
• Most cities have a flat terrain and therefore have a wide
range of transport options.
• Cities with a hilly terrain have more limited possibilities.
Thus, a city’s terrain must be thoroughly considered in
the urban transport planning process.
 Terrain

• Terrain and geographical features—such as the sea, a

river, hills—constrain some places, putting limitations on
the design of transport systems.
 Safety
• Safety is an important concern in many parts of the world. Traffic
accidents cause 1.2 million deaths world wide annually. About 40
people under the age of 25 are estimated to die in road incidents
every hour. Each day nearly 3,500 people die in traffic accidents,
making them a leading cause of death. Children, pedestrians,
cyclists, and the elderly tend to be the most affected by
accidents.
• The incidence of accidents in cities is rapidly increasing, resulting
in death and injury.
• The design of urban transport facilities needs to ensure high
standards of safety.
Energy Use
• Transport systems are large consumers of energy.
Any intervention that is chosen relates to energy
use, including land use patterns, mode of travel,
technologies adopted for public transport, policies
relating to fuel price, or various demand
management strategies.
• The amount of energy required by urban transport
is an important consideration during planning.
The many dimensions of urban
transport
• Here are the many dimensions of urban transport.
Collectively they demonstrate the complexity of
urban transport systems. Often, cities have made
the mistake of dealing with only some of these
elements. These cities have not been able to realize
the full benefits of a comprehensively planned
system.
Summary
Colombo Metropolitan area
• As the largest metropolitan area in Sri Lanka, the
population of Western Province had 5.84 million
inhabitants in 2012. It is estimated that the total
population of Western Province will increase to 7.9
million persons in 2035 and economic growth with
urban development plans are also expected.
Average Daily Traffic at Colombo Entry Points
B152 – 13,531
A003 – 47,079

A001 – 90,548

B435 – 25,339

B062 – 34,210

A000 – 72,101

B084 – 38,970

A004 – 44,182

A002 – 62,917
TRAFFIC PATTERN OF COLOMBO
• Daily Traffic Volume - 567,405 Veh/day
• Vehicle categories
• Cars - 31.32 % (177,700.07 Veh/Day)
• Vans - 11.31% ( 64,146.98 Veh/Day)
• Busses - 5.64 % ( 32,004.69 Veh/Day)
• Goods Vehicle - 45.78 % (259,813.39 Veh/Day)
• Heavy Goods vehicle - 5.95 % ( 33,739.15 Veh/Day)
• Average speed - 20 – 25 km/hr
• No of Signalized junctions
Maintain by RDA - 31 Nos
Maintained by CMC - 48 Nos
 Problems in Road network
• Insufficient Road Network
• Current traffic demands mean that the roads are almost at
capacity or exceed capacity at several points during the peak
hours
• Especially, road traffic between the CMC and the eastern
part of suburban area, such as Battaramulla, depends on
one major arterial road and no alternative roads parallel to
the major arterial road have been developed yet.
• As a consequence the road network forms a "fish bone"
shape and excessive traffic flows are concentrated on the
one major arterial road. Merging points at major
intersections in suburban areas become bottleneck
intersections
Problems in Road network
• Lack of Pedestrian Space
• Almost none of the roads have sufficient space for
sidewalks and shoulders under the existing
conditions
• Most urban roads lack space for pedestrian traffic.
• Only a few arterial roads provide sidewalks for
pedestrians and this lack of sidewalks might cause
frequent and serious traffic accidents involving
pedestrians.
• Establishment of design standards for urban roads
is needed and it is essential to improve the urban
roads in accordance with the urban road design
standards for road traffic safety.
Problems in Road Network

• Lack of Road Design Standards for Urban Roads

• Highway design standards for interurban road
have been established and have been applied for
road development and maintenance.
• The characteristics of urban traffic are different
than intercity traffic.
• Traffic speed of interurban traffic is generally
higher than urban traffic and pedestrian traffic is
more important in urban areas.
• It is desirable to develop a highway design
standard specifically for urban roads.
• Accommodation of public transport not
considered
Problems in Road Network
• Lack of Road Network Master Plan for the CMA
• The arterial road network has been developed and
maintained by the Road Development Authority
and CMC, however, no coordinated arterial road
network development plan has been established
for the whole of CMA.

• The road network master plan which considers a

comprehensive development with public
transport should be established.
Problems in Road Network
• Low Accessibility of the Existing Expressway Network
• The existing Southern Expressway (SEW) and on-going Outer
Circular Highway (OCH) will form a circumferential
expressway network which will run in the fringe area of the
metropolitan area.
• At present it is a considerable distance from the existing
Kottawa interchange to the City centre of Colombo and it
takes around one hour, depending on traffic condition.
• Car drivers and passengers cannot fully enjoy express service
on the expressway due to the long distance from the nearest
interchange.
• Accessibility between expressway's interchanges, the
suburbs and centre of Colombo should be enhanced.
• Traffic flows on the existing ordinary road network should
also be distributed to secure proper travel time and speed
 Problems in Road Network

• Need to Enhance Access to Colombo Port for Cargo

Transport
• In terms of cargo transport, there is no expressway access to the
Port of Colombo at this moment.
• Although the Port Access Road functions as a main access road to
the Port as an exclusive road for the port-related vehicles, the Port
Access Road does not connect with the expressway network of the
Colombo Katunayake Expressway (CKE) and the Southern Expressway.
Congestion is, therefore, observed in the area around the entry points of
the Port Access Road
• The situation might be similar or even aggravated after the completion of
on-going expressway projects, the Outer Circular Highway (OCH) and the
Northern Expressway, as there is no direct access from the Port to the
expressway network.
• This can significantly contribute to worsen the congestion along with the
projected surge in the number of private vehicles in urban areas.
201
202
203
Highest level of Passengers in Kandy
corridor

204
Vehicle population in Western province

Source : Colombo Urban Transport study -JICA 205

Urban Air Pollution -

Source : Colombo Urban Transport study -JICA 206

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 End of the Presentation

THANK YOU

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