Functions of the Genetic Material

The genetic material must

replicate, control the growth and
development of the organism,
and allow the organism to adapt
to changes in the environment.

Genotypic Function: Replication

Phenotypic Function: Gene Expression
Evolutionary Function: Mutation (Gene
modifications)
 Chromosomes
 Genes are located on chromosomes.
 Chromosomes contain proteins and nucleic acids.
 The nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
 In most organisms, the genetic information is encoded in DNA. In some viruses,
RNA Is the genetic material.

 Chromosomes-nuclear fraction-DNA
 Cytosol-proteins-RNA
 DNA Mediates Transformation
Griffith’s experiment
(in vivo)

Mice
Streptococcus pneumoniae
--type IIIS (virulent)
--type IIR (avirulent)

“Transforming principles”

Sia and Dawson’s experiment

(in vitro)
 DNA Mediates Transformation
Griffith’s experiment
(in vivo)

Mice
Streptococcus pneumoniae
--type IIIS (virulent)
--type IIR (avirulent)

“Transforming principles”
Avery, MacLeod and McCarty’s experiment (in vitro)

© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The Genetic Material of Bacteriophage T2 is DNA
Hesley-Chase’s experiment (in vitro)-----------> Transfection ( Infection)

© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The Structures of DNA and RNA
DNA is double-stranded,
with adenine paired with thymine
and guanine paired with cytosine.

RNA is usually single-stranded

and contains uracil in place of
thymine.
Deoxyribonucleotides
 Chargaff’s Rules
%A = %T and %G = %C.

%A ~ %T and %G ~ %C are valid for each of the two DNA strands

methyltransferases methylate and/or deaminate

 The Double Helix

Phosphodiester
[C-O-P-O-C]

Polynucleotide chain
 Forms of DNA
1- B-form helix:
– It is the most common form of DNA in cells.
• Right-handed helix
• Turn every 3.4 nm.
• Each turn contain 10 base pairs (the distance
between each 2 successive bases is 0.34 nm)
• Contain 2 grooves;
– Major groove (wide): provide easy access to bases
– Minor groove (narrow): provide poor access.
2- A-form DNA:
– Less common form of DNA , more common in
RNA
• Right handed helix
• Each turn contain 11 b.p/turn
• Contain 2 different grooves:
– Major groove: very deep and narrow
– Minor groove: very shallow and wide (binding site for RNA)

3- Z-form DNA:
 Radical change of B-form
 Left handed helix, very extended
 It is GC rich DNA regions.
 The sugar base backbone form Zig-Zag shape
 The B to Z transition of DNA molecule may play a role in
gene regulation.
 DNA replication DNA-RNA duplexes
Elevated content
of C:G
DNA Structure: Supercoils

Unique structure of a DNA molecule

Is produced after one or both strand

of DNA are cleaved

DNA will rotate or twist

• DNA usually exists as a double helix, with the two strands held
together by hydrogen bonds between the complementary base
pairs: adenine paired with thymine and guanine paired with
cytosine.

• The complementarity of the two strands of a double helix makes

DNA uniquely suited to store and transmit genetic information.
• The functional DNA molecules in cells are negatively
supercoiled.
•  Negative supercoiling is the right-handed coiling of DNA thus
winding occurs in the clockwise direction. It is also known as the
"underwinding" of DNA.
 Chromosome Structure in Prokaryotes
and Viruses

The DNA molecules of prokaryotes and viruses

(RNA?) are organized into negatively supercoiled
domains.
Prokaryotes are monoploid and are part of the
nucleoids.

Most viruses and prokaryotes have a single set of genes

stored in a single chromosome, which contains a
single molecule of nucleic acid.
 The E. coli Chromosome
Folded genome: is the functional state of a isolated bacterial
chromosome

Mild conditions
(no ionic detergents)

1M salt
Polyamines(-)
 Model of E. coli Chromosome
folded=coiled

protein

Nicked=single strand
• The DNA molecules in prokaryotic and viral
chromosomes are organized into negatively
supercoiled domains (loops).

• Bacterial chromosomes contain circular molecules of

DNA segregated into 50 to 100 domains.
 Chromosome Structure in Eukaryotes

Eukaryotic chromosomes contain huge molecules of

DNA that are highly condensed during mitosis and
meiosis.

The centromeres and telomeres of eukaryotic

chromosomes have unique structures.

Each chromosome is unineme (Theory)

Each chromosome contains a single large double

helix (strand) of DNA molecule
 Chromatin Composition
Histones:
Structural

H1, H2a, H2b, H3, H4

protamines in sperm
Protamines are small, arginine-rich, nuclear
proteins that replace histones late in the haploid
phase of spermatogenesis and are believed
essential for sperm head condensation and DNA
stabilization
Nonhistone proteins:
Non structural
Regulation

Nucleosomes: DNA + histones (except H1)

Nucleosomes
Methyl groups
Acetyl groups
The 30 nm Fiber

© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 In the solenoid structure, the nucleosomes fold up and are stacked,
forming a helix. They are connected by bent linker DNA which positions
sequential nucleosomes adjacent to one another in the helix. 

Expanded structure is zig-zag array of fibers consisting of 12-15

nucleosomes with a length of 270-330 nm (average 300 nm) showed
decondensed extended strings, condensed loops, and coiled
condensed loops.
Micrococcal nuclease releases individual
nucleosomes from chromatin as particles.

Endonucleases
 DNA repeats
Centromeric: specific repeated regions (non-coding DNA sequences=
heterochromatin) of chromosome for attachment of spindle microtubules
( 5000 to 15000 bp).

Most satellite DNA is localized to the

telomeric or the centromeric region
of the chromosome

Satellite DNA consists of very large arrays of tandomly repeating, non-

codding DNA. Satellite DNA is the main component of
functional centromeres, and form the main structural constituent
of heterochromatin
 Telomeres
Functions of telomeres
– Protect the ends of linear DNA molecules from
deoxyribonucleases
– Prevent fusion of chromosomes
– Facilitate complete replication of the ends of
linear DNA molecules

Most telomeres contain repetitive

sequences and a distinct structure.
Telomere Structure
-TTAGGG

-500 to 3000 repeats

-G-rich overhang

-T-loop (D-loop)

-Telomeres specific
Proteins ( protection)

POT1

TRF1 and 2

TIN2 and TPP1

© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Repeated DNA Sequences

Eukaryotic chromosomes contain repetitive

DNA ( 15 to 80 %), Human (~50%)
--Satellite bands (tandem repeats)
--Transposable genetic elements (transposon)
---Retrotransposon, ---DNA transposon
--Genomic island (G+C)