BM6504 Biomedical Instrumentation

Ms. Divya B AP/BME

Respiration Rate measurements
 • The transducer normally used for temperature
measurement in a patient monitoring system is a
thermistor.
• Changes in resistance of the thermistor with changes in
temperature are measured in a bridge circuit and
indicated on a calibrated meter.
• The measuring range is 30–42°C. In a patient monitoring
system, provision for two channel temperature
measurements are usually made.

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 Respiratory Volumes

• Tidal Volume (TV): The volume of gas inspired or

expired (exchanged with each breath) during normal
quiet breathing, is known as tidal volume.
• Tidal volume (TV) – 500 mL

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 • Minute Volume (MV): The volume of gas exchanged per
minute during quiet breathing. It is equal to the tidal
volume multiplied by the breathing rate.
• Alveolar Ventilation (AV): The volume of fresh air
entering the alveoli with each breath.

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 • Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): The volume of gas,
which can be inspired from a normal end- tidal volume.

• Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): The volume of gas

remaining after a normal expiration less the volume
remaining after a forced expiration.

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 • Residual Volume (RV): The volume of gas remaining in
the lungs after a forced expiration.

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 Respiratory Capacities

• Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): The volume of

gas remaining in the lungs after normal expiration.
• Total Lung Capacity (TLC): The volume of gas in the
lungs at the point of maximal inspiration.

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 • Vital Capacity (VC): The greatest volume of gas that
can be inspired by voluntary effort after maximum
expiration, irrespective of time.
• Inspiratory Capacity (IC): The maximum volume that
can be inspired from the resting end expiratory position.
• Dead Space: Dead Space is the functional volume of
the lung that does not participate in gas exchange.

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 • Airway resistance
– Ease with which air flows through tubular respiratory structure
– Higher resistance for smaller tubes (bronchioles and alveoli) not
emptied properly
• Lung compliance
– Ability of the lung tissue to expand on inspiration
– Stretch easily to ensure sufficient air intake

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 • Lung elasticty
– Ability of elastic lung tissues to recoil during expiration
• Intrathroacic pressure
• Intraalveolar pressure

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 Methods
• Displacement Method
• Thermistor Method
• Impedance Pneumography
• CO2 Method of Respiration Rate Measurement
• Apnoea Detectors

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 Displacement Method

• The respiratory cycle is accompanied by changes in the

thoracic volume.
• These changes can be sensed by means of a
displacement transducer incorporating a strain gauge or
a variable resistance element.
• The transducer is held by an elastic band, which goes
around the chest.
• The respiratory movements result in resistance changes
of the strain gauge element connected as one arm of a
Wheatstone bridge circuit.
• Bridge output varies with chest expansion and yields
signals corresponding to respiratory activity.
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 • Changes in the chest circumference can also be
detected by a rubber tube filled with mercury.
• The tube is fastened firmly around the chest.
With the expansion of the chest during an
inspiratory phase, the rubber tube increases in
length and thus the resistance of the mercury
from one end of this tube to the other changes.
• Resistance changes can be measured by
sending a constant current through it and by
measuring the changes in voltage developed
with the respiratory cycle.
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 Thermistor Method

• There is a detectable difference of temperature between

inspired and expired air.
• This difference of temperature can be best sensed by
using a thermistor placed in front of the nostrils by
means of a suitable holding device.
• The thermistor is placed as part of a voltage dividing
circuit or in a bridge circuit whose unbalance signal can
be amplified to obtain the respiratory activity

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 Thermistor air flow detector
• Used on patient fitted with endotracheal tube or on a
ventilator
• Two thermistors mounted inside tee piece
• Thermistor R1 is in the flow of inhaled and exhaled
gases
• Thermistor R2?

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 • R2 forms a reference point by being placed in
nonturbulent gas dead space
• External resistors R3 & R4 forms other half of
Wheatstone bridge
• Constant current flowing to thermistor limited to the point
of self heating (5 -10 mA)
• Power dissipation < 40 mW to avoid injury or discomfort
(bead thermistors placed just inside paatient’s nostrils)

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 • Output voltage Eo is zero when no gas flow
• But takes a non zero value on gas flow
• Voltage waveform representing respiration is created
because thermistor R1 responds difference in
temperature between inhaled and exhaled air.

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 Impedance Pneumography

• This is the indirect method of measurement . impedance

pneumography is based on the fact that , the a.c
impedance across the chest of a patient changes as
respiration occurs . 50-50KHz a.c signal is produced by
oscillator circuit and is given to the chest of the patient
through electrodes.

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 • Impedance method for measuring respiration rate consists in
passing a high frequency current through the appropriately
placed electrodes on the surface of the body and detecting the
modulated signal.
• The signal is modulated by changes in the body impedance,
accompanying the respiratory cycle.
• The electrode used for impedance pneumograph are of the self-
adhesive type.
• Contact with the skin is made through the electrode cream layer
for minimizing motion artefacts.
• The electrodes, when the skin is properly prepared, offer an
impedance of 150 to 200?Ω.
• The change in impedance corresponding to each respiratory
cycle is of the order of 1% of the base impedance.
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 • The two electrode impedance pneumograph is convenient
for use with quiet subjects
• Movement artefacts are produced due to changes in the
electrode contact impedance, in case the subject is moving.
• These artefacts can be significantly reduced by using a four
electrode impedance pneumograph.
• In this case, the output from the oscillator is applied to the
two outer electrodes.
• By doing so, the main oscillator current does not flow
through the contact impedance of the measuring electrodes.
• This system is useful for monitoring restless subjects such
as babies.

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 • To avoid the stimulation of sensory receptors, nerves
and muscle, currents higher in frequency than 5 kHz
must be used for the measurement of physiological
events by impedance.
• Frequencies lower than 5 kHz are particularly hazardous
since ventricular fibrillation may be produced with
substantial current flow.

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 CO2 Method of Respiration Rate Measurement

• Respiration rate can be measured by measuring CO2 in

expired air.
• This CO2 method of measurement is based on the
absorption property of infrared rays by certain gases
• .When infrared rays are passed through the expired air
which contains certain amount of CO2, some of
radiations are absorbed by it.
• So, there is loss of heat energy associated with the rays
• The detector changes the loss in heating effect of the
rays into an electrical signal.
• It is used to get the average respiration rate.

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 • Two beams of equal intensity of infrared radiations from the hot-wire spirals
fall on one half of each of the condenser microphone assembly.
• The detector has two identical portions separated by a thin, flexible metal
diaphragm.
• The detector is filled with a sample of pure CO 2.
• Because of the absorption of CO2 in the analysis cell, the beam falling on
the test side of the detector is weaker than that falling on the reference
side.
• The gas in the reference side would, therefore, be heated more than that
on the analysis side.
• As a result, the diaphragm is pushed slightly to the analysis side of the
detector.
• The diaphragm forms one plate of a capacitor.
• The infrared beams are chopped at 25 Hz and the alternating signal which
appears across the detector is amplified, shaped and suitably integrated to
give the respiration rate.
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 Apnoea Detectors
• Apnoea is the stopping of breathing. It leads to the arrest of the
circulation.
• It can be occurred at the conditions like head injury, drug overdose,
etc.
• It can also occur in premature babies during the first week of life
because of their immature nervous system.
• If apnoea persists for a prolonged period, then brain functions can be
severly damaged.
• So apnoea patients are closely monitored.
• Apnoea monitor is used to watch the apnoea patients respiration rate.
• Apnoea monitor gives audio signals and visual signals, when no
inspiration occurs for a particular period of time.
• Input from the sensor is connected with the amplifier circuit having
high input impedance.

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 • It basically consists of an input amplifier circuit, motion
and respiration channels, a motion/respiration
discrimination circuit, and an alarm circuit.
• The input circuit consists of a high input impedance
amplifier which couples the input signal from the sensor
pad to the logic circuits.
• The sensor may be a strain gauge transducer embedded
in the mattress.
• The output of the amplifier is adjusted to zero volts with
offset adjustment provided in the amplifier.
• The amplified signal goes to motion and respiration
channels connected in parallel.
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 • The motion channel discriminates between motion and
respiration as a function of frequency.
• In the case of motion signals, high level signals above a
fixed threshold are detected from the sensor.
• In the respiration channel, a low-pass filter is incorporated.
• Low frequency signals below 1.5 Hz (respiration) cause
the output of the Schmidt trigger circuit to pulse at the
respiration rate.
• Higher frequency signals, above 1.5 Hz (motion), cause
the output of the trigger to go positive. Absence of the
signal (apnoea) causes the output of the Schmidt trigger to
go negative.

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 • The outputs of the motion and the respiration signals are
combined in a comparator circuit, which compares the
polarities of the motion and respiration channel signals to
indicate respiration.
• The presence of respiration is indicated by a flashing
light.
• The output of the discrimination detector also goes to an
apnoea period selector circuit, a low frequency alarm
oscillator and driver, a tone oscillator and audio amplifier
connected to a speaker.
• Audible alarm is given at a frequency of 800–1000 Hz,
which is pulsed at 2 Hz.

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 Thank you

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