ROLE OF HEMOGLOBIN IN OXYGEN TRANSPORT

Normally, about 97 percent of the oxygen transported from the lungs

to the tissues is carried in chemical combination with hemoglobin in
the red blood cells.
 The remaining 3 percent is transported in the dissolved state in the
water of the plasma and blood cells.
REVERSIBLE COMBINATION OF O2 WITH HEMOGLOBIN
 When PO2 is high, as in the pulmonary capillaries, O2 binds with the
hemoglobin
 but when PO2 is low, as in the tissue capillaries, O2 is released from
the hemoglobin.
 Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve.

 Percent saturation of hemoglobin

- progressive increase in the percentage of
hemoglobin bound with O2 as blood PO2 increases.
 blood leaving the lungs and entering the systemic
arteries usually has a PO2 of about 95 mm Hg, one
can see from the dissociation curve that the usual
O2 saturation of systemic arterial blood averages
97 percent.
 normal venous blood returning from the
peripheral tissues, the PO2 is about 40 mm Hg,
and the saturation of hemoglobin averages 75
percent.
Maximum Amount of Oxygen That Can Combine with the
Hemoglobin of the Blood.

 blood of a normal person contains about 15 grams of hgb in each

100 ml of blood, each gram of hemoglobin can bind with a maximum
of 1.34 milliliters of O2 .
Therefore, the average hgb is 20.1 milliliters of O2 if the hemoglobin
is 100 percent saturated.
Can be express as 20 volumes percent
 Amount of Oxygen Released From the Hemoglobin When
Systemic Arterial Blood Flows Through the Tissues
• normal systemic arterial blood is 19.4
ml per 100 ml of blood
• Upon passing through the tissue
capillaries, this amount is reduced, on
average, to 14.4 ml
• Normal conditions, 5 ml of O2 are
transported from the lungs to the
tissues by each 100 milliliters of blood
flow.
Transport of Oxygen Is Markedly Increased
during Strenuous Exercise.
• During heavy exercise, the muscle cells use O2 at a rapid rate than can
cause the muscle interstitial fluid PO2 to fall from the normal 40 mm
Hg to as low as 15 mm Hg.
• At this low pressure, only 4.4 milliliters of O2 remain bound with the
hemoglobin in each 100 milliliters of blood,
• Keep in mind that the cardiac output can increase to six to seven
times normal in well-trained marathon runners.
• Thus, multiplying the increase in cardiac output (6- to 7-fold) by the
increase in O2 transport in each volume of blood (3-fold) gives a 20-
fold increase in O2 transport to the tissues.
Utilization Coefficient
• The percentage of the blood that gives up its O2 as it passes through
the tissue capillaries
• normal value for this is about 25 percent
• During strenuous exercise, the utilization coefficient in the entire body
can increase to 75 to 85 %.
HEMOGLOBIN “BUFFERS” TISSUE PO2
• Its function as a “tissue oxygen buffer” system
 Hemoglobin helps maintain nearly constant PO2 in the tissues
 When atmospheric oxygen concentration changes markedly, the buffer
effect of hemoglobin still maintains almost constant tissue PO2.
Hemoglobin Helps Maintain Nearly Constant
PO2 in the Tissues
• Under basal conditions, the tissues require about 5 milliliters of O2
from each 100 milliliters of blood passing through the tissue
capillaries.
• During heavy exercise, extra amounts of O2 must be delivered from
the hemoglobin to the tissues.
• the steep slope of the dissociation curve
• the increase in tissue blood flow caused by the decreased PO2; that is, a very
small fall in PO2 causes large amounts of extra O2 to be released from the
hemoglobin.
When Atmospheric Oxygen Concentration Changes Markedly,
the Buffer Effect of Hemoglobin Still Maintains Almost
Constant Tissue PO2.
• Normal PO2 in the alveoli is about 104 mm Hg
• When one enters areas of compressed air, such as deep in the sea or in
pressurized chambers, the PO2 may rise to 10 times this level.
• when the alveolar PO2 is decreased to as low as 60 mm Hg, the arterial
hemoglobin is still 89 percent saturated with O2
• only 8 percent below the normal saturation of 97 percent.
• tissues still remove about 5 milliliters of O2 from each 100 milliliters of blood
passing through the tissues
• to remove this O2, the PO2 of the venous blood falls to 35 mm Hg—
• the tissue PO2 hardly changes, despite the marked fall in alveolar PO2 from 104
to 60 mm Hg.
FACTORS THAT SHIFT THE OXYGEN-HEMOGLOBIN
DISSOCIATION CURVE—THEIR IMPORTANCE FOR
OXYGEN TRANSPORT
FACTORS THAT SHIFT THE OXYGEN-HEMOGLOBIN
DISSOCIATION CURVE—THEIR IMPORTANCE FOR
OXYGEN TRANSPORT
• blood becomes slightly acidic, pH decrease from the normal value of
7.4 to 7.2 the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve shifts, on average,
about 15 percent to the right.
• increase in pH from the normal 7.4 to 7.6 shifts the curve to the left
• Several other factors are known to shift the curve.
• Right shift:
(1) increased CO2 concentration
(2) increased blood temperature
(3) increased 2,3-biphosphoglycerate (BPG)
INCREASED DELIVERY OF OXYGEN TO THE TISSUES
WHEN CARBON DIOXIDE AND HYDROGEN IONS SHIFT
THE OXYGEN-HEMOGLOBIN DISSOCIATION CURVE—
THE BOHR EFFECT
• A shift of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve
to the right in response to increases in blood CO2
and hydrogen ions has a significant effect by
enhancing the release of O2 from the blood in the
tissues and enhancing oxygenation of the blood in
the lungs, is called the Bohr effect.
EFFECT OF BPG TO CAUSE RIGHTWARD SHIFT OF
THE OXYGEN-HEMOGLOBIN DISSOCIATION CURVE

• In hypoxic conditions that last longer than a few hours, BPG in

the blood shifting the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve to
the right
• causes O2 to be released to the tissues at as much as 10 mm Hg
higher tissue O2 pressure than would be the case without this
increased BPG.
• under some conditions, the BPG mechanism can be important
for adaptation to hypoxia, especially to hypoxia caused by poor
tissue blood flow.
 METABOLIC USE OF OXYGEN BY
THE CELLS
• Note that whenever the intracellular
PO2 is above 1 mm Hg, the rate of O2
usage becomes constant for any
given concentration of ADP in the cell
• increase concentration of ADP,
increases the metabolic usage of O2
as it combines with the various cell
nutrients, releasing energy that
reconverts the ADP back to ATP
Effect of Diffusion Distance From the
Capillary to the Cell on Oxygen Usage.
• Tissue cells are seldom more than 50 micrometers away from a
capillary, and O2 normally can diffuse readily enough from the
capillary to the cell to supply all the required amounts of O2 for
metabolism.
• cells are located farther from the capillaries, and the rate of O2
diffusion become low that intracellular PO2 falls below the critical
level required to maintain maximal intracellular metabolism.
Effect of Blood Flow on Metabolic Use of
Oxygen.
• The total amount of O2 available each minute for use in any
given tissue is determined by
(1)the quantity of O2 that can be transported to the tissue in
each 100 milliliters of blood and
(2)rate of blood flow. If the rate of blood flow falls to zero, the
amount of available O2 also falls to zero.
TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN
and CARBON DIOXIDE in
BLOOD and TISSUE.
TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE BLOOD
Contents:
1. INTRODUCTION.
2. CHEMICAL FORMS IN WHICH CARBON DIOXIDE IS TRANSPORTED.
a. Transport of carbon dioxide in the dissolved state
b. Transport of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate ion
i. Reaction of carbon dioxide w/ water in RBC as effect of carbonic
anhydrase.
ii. Dissociation of H2CO3 into HCO3-
iii. Transport of CO2 in combination with hemoglobin and plasma
proteins- carbaminohemoglobin.
3. CARBON DIOXIDE DISSOCIATION CURVE.
4. HALDANE EFFECT.
TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE
IN THE BLOOD
 How carbon dioxide is transported
from tissue to the lungs.
 Determine factors affecting transport
of carbon dioxide.
1. INTRODUCTION.
• Unlike O2, CO2 can be usually transported in far greater quantities.
• The amount of CO2 present in the bloodstream has a significant
effect with the acid base balance of the body fluids.
• 4 milliliters of CO2 are transported from the tissues to the lungs. In
each 100ml of blood.
2. CHEMICAL FORMS IN WHICH
CARBON DIOXIDE IS TRANSPORTED.
 The beginning of CO2 transport process is that CO2 diffuses
from the cells to the interstitial fluid. And from interstitial
fluid to the capillaries, in the form of dissolved molecular
CO2.
2.a. Transport of carbon dioxide in the dissolved state

 Only small portion of CO2 is transported in the dissolve

state to the lungs
 Of 45mmHg (PCO2) of the venous blood= 2.7ml/dl is in
dissolved state.
 Of the 40mmHg (PCO2) of the arterial blood= 2.4ml/dl is in
dissolved state.
 2.a. Transport of carbon dioxide in the dissolved state

45mmHg (venous blood)

- 40mmHg (arterial blood)
5mmHg (total PCO2 released to the lungs)

2.7ml/dl (venous blood)

- 2.4ml/dl (arterial blood)
0.3ml of CO2 in 100ml of blood flow
(transported in dissolved state to the lungs)

  0.3 𝑚𝑙
𝑥 100 =7.5 % 
4 𝑚𝑙
2.bTransport of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate ion

Reaction of carbon dioxide w/ water in RBC as effect of

carbonic anhydrase.
 CO2 reacts with H2O with the help of
Carbonic anhydrase. To form H2CO3.
2.bTransport of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate ion
Dissociation of CO2 into HCO3- and H+

 H2CO3 will dissociate into H+ and HCO3- .

 H+ will combine with Hgb to buffer the
decrease in pH brought about by increase
in H+ ion concentration. (hemoglobin
buffer system).
 HCO3- will diffuse from RBC to plasma
coupled by the influx of Cl- (chloride shift).
2.bTransport of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate
ion
 This transport of CO2 in form of bicarbonate ions
accounts for 70% of CO2 transported in the lungs
 Acetazolamide (carbonic anhydrase inhibitor), used to
alleviate symptom of altitude sickness.
2.bTransport of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate ion

Transport of CO2 in combination with hemoglobin and

plasma proteins

 In about 30% of CO2 transported from

tissue to lungs, CO2 combines with amine
radicals of hemoglobin molecule and by
CO2 combining with plasma proteins.
 1.5ml CO2 is transported to the lungs in
each 100 ml of blood (however is
doubtful).
 CO2 + Hgb ↔ Hbg-CO2.
2.bTransport of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate ion

Transport of CO2 in combination with hemoglobin and

plasma proteins

 CO2 is released in the pulmonary alveoli

where PCO2 is lower compared to
pulmonary capillary.
3. CARBON DIOXIDE DISSOCIATION CURVE.
 Normal blood PCO2 levels ranges from
40mmHg to 45mmHg.
 Normal concentration of CO2 in all
forms of blood is at 50 volumes
percent.
 Only 4 volumes percent is exchanges
during normal transport of CO2.
4. HALDANE EFFECT.
 ↑PO2 in pulmonary alveoli
↑binding of O2 to hemoglobin.
 In the process the O2 displaces the
CO2 and is released in pulmonary
alveoli for expiration.
 Is far more important in
promoting CO2 transport than is
Bohr effect in promoting O2
4. HALDANE EFFECT.
 Displacement of CO2 from the blood
causes hemoglobin to become stronger
acid.
 4. HALDANE EFFECT.
There are 2 ways in which O2 binding will displace
CO2.

1. Acidic hemoglobin has less tendency to form

carbaminohemoglobin( it favors the
dissociation of carbaminohemoglobin, and
release of CO2).
2. Acidic hemoglobin also increases the release of
H+ to react with HCO3- to form H2CO3.
Hgb-CO2 ↔ Hgb + CO2

H+ + HCO3- ↔ H2CO3 ↔ CO2 + H2O

4. HALDANE EFFECT.
 CO2 formed in both ways will diffuse to the pulmonary Hgb-CO2 ↔ Hgb + CO2
alveoli and finally into the air.
 Point A- represents the PO2 and PCO2 at the H+ + HCO3- ↔ H2CO3 ↔ CO2 + H2O
tissue level. (52 volumes)
 Point B- represents the PO2 and PCO2 at the
pulmonary capillary. (48 volumes)
4. HALDANE EFFECT.
 Without the Haldane effect, or the increase binding of
Oxygen with hemoglobin there will only be of 2
volumes of CO2 released into the atmosphere.
 The Haldane effect approximately doubles the amount
of CO2 released from the blood into the lungs.
RESPIRATORY EXCHANGE
RATIO.
RESPIRATORY EXCHANGE RATIO.
 The ratio of CO2 output to O2 uptake.

Only 82% as much as CO2 is expired in the lungs as O2

is taken up.
Normal O2 transported: 5ml/100ml
blood .

Normal CO2 transported: 4ml/100ml

blood.
RESPIRATORY EXCHANGE RATIO.
Values of R under metabolic conditions

Metabolic condition Respiratory exchange Reason.

ratio.

Person using 1. When O2 is metabolized with CHO, 1 mol CO2 is

exclusively formed in 1 mol of O2.
carbohydrates.

Person using fats for 0.7 When O2 reacts with fats, large amounts of O2
energy. reacts with H+ from fats to form H2O instead of
CO2.

Person with balanced 0.825 Both.

diet.