UNIT III: Detailed Analysis and

Techniques

By,
Dr. Kiranmayi
School of Architecture and Planning
Anna University
 CONTOURS
A contour is an imaginary line that connects all points of
equal elevation above or below a fixed reference plane –
mean sea level or a locally established benchmark

A contour line is the graphic representation of a contour

on a plan or map

The shore line of a pond or lake is the best example of a

naturally occurring contour and illustrates the concept of
a closed contour
 CONTOURS
Row of seating in an athletic stadium or amphitheater
provides an excellent example to visualize a series of
contours

Contour drawings are two dimensional

representations of three dimensional forms

Contour lines are a graphic device used by designers

to visualize or see landform (which is three
dimensional) in two dimensions on a piece of paper or
computer screen
 CONTOURS
Skill of a landscape architect is the ability to analyze,
interpret and visualize landforms from contour maps
--- topographic maps

Relationship of contour lines to three dimensional form

a) Isometric drawing of pyramidal form
b) Contour lines illustrated on the isometric drawing
c) Contour plan of pyramid (concentric squares)
 CONTOURS
Necessary to understand the implications of change to
contours both aesthetically and ecologically

Alteration of form by changing contour lines

a) Square contour lines of pyramid altered to concentric circular contour lines
b) Horizontal planes of circular contours stacked in layer cake-like manner
c) Isometric of resultant conical form
 CONTOURS

Surface smoothing between adjacent contour lines

 CONTOURS
Contours not only help us understand elevation
variation, they also serve as an aide to visualizing
natural landform and, in the built environment,
sloping planes and three-dimensional forms such as
steps
 CONTOURS
Examples of what contours might look like if they
existed in the real, three-dimensional world
 CONTOURS
Examples of what contours might look like if they
existed in the real, three-dimensional world
 CONTOURS
Examples of what contours might look like if they
existed in the real, three-dimensional world
 CONTOUR LINES
A contour represents a continuous line of the same
elevation
Each contour on a map represents an elevation and
so, each contour line needs to be labeled with its
elevation
The difference in elevation between adjacent contour
lines is defined as the contour interval
Most common intervals are 1, 2, 5 10 and multiples
of 10ft and 0.20, 0.50 and 1.00 meters
 CONTOUR LINES
To interpret a contour
map – scale, direction of
slope and contour
interval must be known

As map scale decreases,

the contour interval
increases, the amount of
detail and degree of
accuracy decreases
 CONTOUR LINES

Slope = Elevation difference / Horizontal difference

Assume Horizontal difference is 20’
Slope = 6/20 = 3.3%
 CONTOUR LINES

101 feet above the sea level or datum level

Three, wavy lines: Are they contours
or
something else? What additional
information is needed for the same
three wavy lines to represent contours?
The same three wavy lines but with added
information, making it impossible to mistake
the lines for anything but a set of contour lines
 SPACING OF CONTOUR LINES

Contour lines drawn close together or far apart—

indicates the relative steepness of slopes in a
landscape

Contour lines on a topographic plan that are close

together represent a steep slope

Contour lines spaced farther apart are less steep

 SPACING OF CONTOUR LINES

Example of steep (A) and less steep (B, C) slopes represented by the spacing of contours
and their corresponding sections
DRAWING A SECTION
 DRAWING A SECTION
a) Indicate the cutting plane
b) Draw parallel lines according to contour interval
and proposed vertical scale
c) Project perpendicular lines from the intersection of
the contour line with the cutting plane to the
corresponding parallel line
d) Connect the points to complete the section and
delineate the ground line
 LANDFORMS
Contours on a topographic map have very specific
shapes or forms

Each landform has a recognizable arrangement or

pattern of contours in plan

Each landform has an arrangement of contours that is

often described as a landform signature
 LANDFORMS

Four distinct landforms found in nature

1. Summit landform
2. Depression landform
3. Valley Landform
4. Ridge landform
 SUMMIT LANDFORM
Summit landform (labeled A) is
shown in plan.
It contains the highest point
relative to the surrounding
terrain
Contours arranged in concentric
or irregular concentric, closed
figures with the highest contour
at the center
Since the land slopes away in all Summit landforms usually
form hills, mountains
directions, summits tends to
SUMMIT LANDFORM

Summit landforms usually

form hills, mountains
 DEPRESSION LANDFORM
Depression landform (labeled D) is
shown in plan
This landform contains the lowest
point relative to the surrounding
terrain
Contours arranged in concentric or
irregular concentric, closed figures
with the lowest contour at the center
To distinguish between summit and
depression it is necessary to know
the direction of elevation change –
DEPRESSION LANDFORM

Depression landforms usually form ponds, lakes

 VALLEY LANDFORM
Valley landform (labeled B) is
shown in plan
It is an elongated depression that
forms the space between two ridges
It has its unique signature with the
contours arranged with a “V”
bottom, indicating a sharp valley
shape
Contours oriented uphill with a
wide, flat bottom represent a valley
formed by the action of erosion,
VALLEY LANDFORM
 RIDGE LANDFORM
Ridge landform (labeled C) is
shown in plan
It is a raised elongated
landform
The contours along the sides of
the ridge will be relatively
parallel and there will be a high
point or several high points
along the ridge
It has its unique signature with
the contours arranged with a
“U” bottom
 CONCAVE SLOPE
Concave slope (labeled
A) is shown in plan
The contour lines are
spaced at increasing
distances in the downhill
direction
The slope is steeper at
the higher elevations and
becomes progressively
flatter at the lower
elevations
 CONVEX SLOPE
Convex slope (labeled B) is
shown in plan
The contour lines are spaced
at decreasing distances in the
downhill direction
The slope is flatter at the
higher elevations and
becomes progressively
steeper at the lower
elevations
Summit (labeled C) is
shown in plan
 UNIFORM SLOPE
The contour lines are spaced at equal distances
Change in elevation is at a constant rate

Uniform slope
 Characteristics of Contour lines
1. All points on the same contour line are at the same
elevation
2. Every contour line is a continuous line, which forms a
closed figure, either within or beyond the limits of the
map
3. Two or more contour lines are required to indicate
three dimensional form an direction of slope
4. The steepest slope is perpendicular to the contour
lines. This is a result of having the greatest vertical
change in the shortest horizontal distance
5. Consistent to the preceding point water flows
perpendicular to contour lines
 Characteristics of Contour lines
6. For the same scale and contour interval, the steepness
of the slope increases as the map distance between
contour line decreases
7. Equally spaced contour lines indicate a constant or
uniform slope
8. Contour lines never cross except where there is an
overhanging cliff, natural bridge or other similar
phenomenon
9. In the natural landscape, contour lines never divide or
split. However, this is not necessarily true at the
interface between the natural and built landscape
 Exercises
1. Explore as many of the following types of
landscapes as possible.
Residences of different types and scales
Parks
University or college campuses
Corporate campuses
Civic spaces/places — city hall, post office, library,
courthouse
Places of worship
 Exercises
As you experience these places, think about how the use
of landform in the design affects your experience.
Does it provide a sequence of experience?
Does it evoke a certain feeling or emotion?
How does the landform interact with plantings and
other designed elements to create the overall
composition?
Are there things about the landform that you would
change to improve your experience of the place?
Take photographs of the places you explore and a brief
description of your observation
 Exercises
2. Sketch, photograph, or create a collage of one of
your favorite place designed or not. Write and
describe a narrative of the place that answers the
following questions:
 How is the character of this place is affected by the
landforms of which it is composed?
How do the landforms interact with the plant life to
create the place?
How would you change the landform to improve this
place?
Are there particular environmental functions that
appear to be a part of the composition of the place?
 Exercises
What is the mistake in the contours drawn in the
below contour map
 Exercises

Identify the type of landforms

A----? B----? C ----? D
 Slope Analysis
 An analysis of the steepness of the terrain is referred
to as slope analysis
 Use of Slope analysis - Helps in making site
planning decisions
 Function of Slope analysis -- identify/determine the
best areas for planning buildings, roads, parking lots
 To conduct slope analysis on a map, the following
information is required
 Horizontal scale
Established from contour map
 Contour interval
 % of slope
Slope Analysis
 Slope Analysis
 S = V/H
 S = percentage of slope
 V = Difference in elevation (Contour interval)
 H = Horizontal distance
Slope Analysis
 Slope Analysis

A Positive slope going uphill: Negative slope going downhill: –15%

Slope Analysis
 Grading
Site grading is a process of reshaping the existing
topography of a site to accommodate programmed
uses (such as sport field, parking lot) and built
structures (such as residence, a school building, trails
or roads)

Grand Park, Los Angeles, CA. Grading to provide wheelchair access connection
from upper to lower park areas.0
 Grading
Site grading is used to reshape the existing
topography not only to accommodate intended uses
but also to redirect surface water flow
 Grading Issues

A Ponding of storm water.

This is the result of either ground settlement or an increase of storm water
runoff
 Grading Issues

Ponding occurred as a result of either inadequate

grading or subsequent ground settlement
 Grading Issues

Inadequate design of the water diversion

channel was exacerbated by lack of ground cover maintenance
with highly erosive soil
 Grading Issues

Erosion is seen on slope where unplanned

foot traffic has occurred
 Grading

With a well-designed and executed grading

plan, runoff water goes where it was designed to go:
towards an area catch basin
 Purpose of Grading

Grading and the creating

of landforms can be
employed to achieve an
aesthetic goal and to help
shape and create outdoor
spaces as part of a
complete design scheme.
Such an outdoor design Stern Grove Concert Meadow Amphitheater,
might include plantings, San Francisco, CA. Grading on sloping
topography has provided visually attractive and
walls, water features, and informal seating for an outdoor amphitheater.
hardscape.
 Purpose of Grading
Grading and the creating of
landforms can achieve
specialized purposes such
as water conservation and
management or access
control and site security.
The picture shows a small
lake created by the
landscape architect as a
Private residence, Malinalco, Mexico
source of irrigation water,
for aesthetic reasons as well
as to provide a cooling
effect in a hot, dry climate.
Grading symbols
Grading
Grading
 Grading
Buildings, parking areas, play yards need to be flat to
sit on but at the same time the level areas must slope
enough to ensure adequate drainage

THREE METHODS OF GRADING

Cut ---- Removing Earth
Fill ----Adding Earth
Combination of cut and fill
 Grading
Grading is referred to as modification of the ground
surface by CUT or FILL or COMBINATION OF
BOTH

Grading by Fill

Grading by fill and cut

Grading by Cut
 Grading of Paths/ Roadways
Roadway represents a miniature of most grading
problems found in landscape architecture

Primary purpose of grading a pathway/ roadway is to

slope the ground surface to ensure proper drainage

Terminology of roadway grading

Crown
Swale
Curbs
 Grading of Paths/ Roadways
1. Crown: It is the difference in elevation between the
edge and the center line of a roadway
Primary purpose of a roadway is to increase the
speed of the storm runoff from the road surface
Secondary purpose it to separate opposing lanes of
traffic
Crown height is expressed in inches or inches per
foot
Total height of a crown is calculated by multiplying
half of the road width by the rate of change of
crown
Crown height for a 24 ft wide road with a crown of
 Grading of Paths/ Roadways

 Three basic types of road crown sections

 Parabolic Section

 Tangential Section

 Reverse Crown
 Grading of Paths/ Roadways
1 a) Parabolic Section
Commonly used in asphalt construction
Change in slope direction at the roadway centerline
is achieved by a rounded transition.
Contour lines point in the downhill direction (- ve)
 Grading of Paths/ Roadways
1 b) Tangential Section
Most often found in concrete surfaces
Center line of the roadway is visually emphasized
due to the intersection of the sloping planes along
the line
Contour lines point in the down hill direction but
are ‘V’ shaped rather than round in appearance
 Grading of Paths/ Roadways
1 c) Reverse Crown
May be either parabolic or tangential in section
Typically used where it is not desirable to direct
storm runoff to the edge of the roads or in restricted
conditions such as urban alleys
Storm water runs off from one side of the road to
the other
 Grading of Paths/ Roadways
2. Swale
It is either a constructed or natural drainage channel
that has a vegetated surface (usually grass)
A gutter is a paved swale
Depth of a swale is usually measured as the difference
in elevation between the centerline and a point at the
edge of the swale on a line take perpendicular to the
center line
Swales are used to intercept, direct and control storm
runoff

Vegetable parabolic Paved gutter Combination curb and

 Grading of Paths/ Roadways
3. Curb
A vertical separation at the edge of the roadway
Usually 6 in, but may vary from 8 in to 2 in.
They are used to direct storm runoff and to provide
safety for pedestrians along the road edge

Batter faced section

Beveled section Rounded section
used for typical street
SITE SELECTION
 PREPLANNING
1. Clarify project objectives and requirements
2. Determine the site selection criteria

DATA COLLECTION
3. Identify potential sites
4. Evaluate each site’s suitability

ANALYSIS
5. Rank the alternative sites + weightage for factors
6. Select the best site and document the results
7. Test project feasibility
Site Selection
Process
Site Selection Criteria Category Checklist
WEIGHTING FACTORS (WF) METHOD
Weighting Factors
1 = not very important
2 = somewhat important
3 = important
4 = very important
5 = essential
Applying Ranking Criteria (SITE)
Criteria Ranking Scores
0 = unacceptable (least
desirable/least cost effective)
1 = poor
2 = fair
3 = good
4 = excellent (most desirable/most
cost effective)
Tabulating and Analyzing Results (Sample)