MEE1007 THEORY OF METAL CASTING

L T P J C
2 0 2 4 3

Dr. CHINMAYA P. MOHANTY

Assistant Professor (Senior)
School of Mechanical Engineering,
VIT Vellore, Vellore, TN, India – 632 014.
 MEE2014 Metal Casting Technology

Moulding Practice - Introduction to casting and foundry industry; basic principles of casting
processes; sequence in foundry operations; Moulding sand and its properties. Carbon dioxide
Unit – 1 moulding, Moulding Equipment, moulding technique, Patterns and Cores

Melting furnaces-Melting furnaces for ferrous and non-ferrous foundries. Electric and fuel fired furnaces.
Induction Furnaces; Types of Furnaces, Electromagnetic Stirring, power supplies; Recent developments in
Unit– 2 energy considerations. Melting practice – ferrous, non-ferrous metals and alloys and composites. Melting
practices; Fluxing, inoculation, degassing and grain refinement treatments. Control of pouring
temperature Heat treatments of castings, Shop floor melt quality tests.

Special Casting techniques- Shell moulding, Plaster Mould casting, Squeeze casting, Investment
Casting, Die-casting, Centrifugal casting, Stir casting - Fundamental principles, production
Unit – 3 techniques, characteristics and its applications.

Solidification of Casting Concept of solidification of metals. Homogenous and heterogeneous

Unit-4 nucleation. Growth mechanism. Solidification of pure metals and alloys. Mechanism of columnar
and dendritic growth. Solidification time and Chvorinov's rule. Concept of progressive and
directional solidifications. Contd. …..

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 MEE2014 Metal Casting Technology

Principles of Gating and Risering Purpose of the gating system. Components of the gating
System and its functions. Design of the gating System. Different types of gates. Gating ratio and its
Unit – 5 functions. Definition and functions of the riser. Types of risers and their application. Design of the
riser - its shape. Size and location. Use of insulating material and exothermic compounds in risers

Factors to be considered in casting design. Design consideration in pattern making, moulding

Unit – 6 techniques and core making and assembly. Cooling stresses and hot spots in casting and
modification in casting geometry to overcome them – Modeling and Simulation using Solidcast,
Opticast and Flowcast. Casting Quality Control: Casting defects and factors responsible for
them. Different inspection and testing methods to evaluate the casting. Quality control activities in
a foundry.

Structure and Properties of Cast Metal: Detailed study of microstructure, mechanical and other
properties of ferrous and nonferrous metals and alloys and composites. Techniques of strengthening
Unit – 7
and improving the properties of cast metals and alloys .

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 BOOKS

TEXT BOOKS

1. Heine, et. al (2003), Principle of Metal Casting, Tata-McGraw-HiII Publication.

REFERENCE BOOKS

1.Campbell, J., Castings (2003), Butter Worth, Heinemann Publishers.

2.Beeley P.R. (2001), Foundry Technology, Buttersworth.
3.Srinath Viswanathan (2008), Metal Casting ASME Handbook.

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 Course outcomes

 Design metal casting processes and sequence of foundry operations in casting

 Analyse suitable melting techniques and practices for ferrous and non-ferrous
castings

 Evaluate various metal casting processes and their applications

 Analyze the solidification in casting by considering thermal and metallurgical
aspects and their role on mechanical properties of casting

 Design gating and riser system needed for defect free casting
 Design a casting by considering pattern making, moulding technique, core
making, assembly and quality control

 Improve mechanical properties of cast metal

 Prepare mould for sound and defect free sand castings

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 What Is Casting
 Casting may be defined as a metal object obtained by
pouring molten metal in to a mould and allowing it to
solidify.
 Molten metal when poured in to a cavity of desired
shape (called mould) flows in to every nook and corner
of the cavity and fills all the shape.
 The section of the work shop where metal castings are
produced is known as the foundry or foundry shop.

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 Why Casting
 The range of products that can be manufactured by the
casting process vary from a small nail to very big
components and simple shapes to very intricate
shapes, which cannot be manufactured by any other
processes.
 For example, the largest cannon in the world, situated
at Jaigarh fort, Jaipur, weighing 50 tons, was
manufactured by the process of casting in the
seventeenth century

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 THE SAND CASTING PROCESS

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 ALLOY WHEEL PREPARATION

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 Applications

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 THE SAND CASTING PROCESS

 The most common method of making castings is

using sand moulds.
 Sand moulds are made by ramming sand in metallic
or wooden flasks.
 Such a casting process is commonly called sand
casting process.
The basic sequence of the operations required for
making sand castings are:
1. Pattern making
2. Mould making Core making
3. Melting of metal and pouring
4. Cooling and solidification
5. Cleaning of castings and inspection.

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 Pattern

 A pattern is defined as a model of a casting. It is

constructed in such a way that it can be used for
forming an impression in sand or other material used
for making the mould.
 The process of making patterns is an important step
in the casting process. A pattern has to be made
before making a mould. Various types of patterns are
needed to make different shaped castings.

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 Pattern Making

 Patterns are the foundry man's mould

forming tool.
 Pattern is used to form the mould cavity
in which molten metal is poured.
 Pattern making involves

 Study of materials used for making patterns,

 Various types of patterns
 Pattern allowances

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 Pattern Making

A pattern for multiple uses must last long and, therefore,

must be made from a suitable material.
The materials commonly used for pattern making
include
1.Wood
2.Metals and alloys
3.Plasters
4.Plastic
5.Rubber
6.Wax
The selection of the material for a pattern depends
upon the
1.Type of moulding material used,
2.Number of castings to be produced,
3.Degree of dimensional accuracy required etc.
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 GOOD Pattern Materials Charcteristics

The material selected for making a pattern should fulfill

the following requirements
It should be easily shaped, worked, machined and joined.
 It should be resistant to wear and corrosion.
It should be resistant to chemical action.
It should allow easy withdrawal from mould cavity.
It should be dimensionally stable and must remain
unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity.
It should be easily available and economical.

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 Pattern Materials

Characteristics of Commonly used pattern materials are

Wood :
1.The most commonly used pattern material is dried or
seasoned wood.
2.The main reason for using wood for making patterns is its
easy availability, low weight, and low cost. It can be easily
shaped, worked, joined, and is relatively cheap.
3.By a rough estimate, more than 90% of the castings are,
produced using wooden pattern.
4.The main disadvantage of the wood is that it absorbs
moisture, because of which distortions and dimensional
changes occur)
5. It has relatively lower life and is economical for the small
quantity production.
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 CONTD.

Metal:

1.Metal patterns are extensively used for the large

quantity production of casting and for closer dimensional
tolerances on castings.
2.Metal patterns have much longer life and are free from
major disadvantages of wooden patterns.
3.Though many materials such as cast iron and brass can
be used as pattern materials, aluminium is most
commonly used as it can be easily worked, it is light
weight and corrosion resistant.

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 CONTD.

Plastic
1.Plastics are used as pattern materials because of their
low weight, easier formability, smooth surfaces, and
durability.
2.They do not absorb moisture and are dimensionally
stable.
3.Plastic patterns can be cleaned easily and have good
corrosion resistance.

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 CONTD.
Polystyrene:
1.Polystyrene (or expanded thermo Cole) is another pattern
material, which has the special property that it changes to
gaseous state on heating.
2.Patterns made from polystyrene are disposable patterns
that are suitable for single casting, like a prototype.
3.Unlike other pattern materials, one pattern produces only
one casting.
4. It is very easy to make a pattern from polystyrene
because it is soft.
5. The pattern is not taken out of the mould to create the
cavity. When the molten metal is poured in to the mould, the
polystyrene transforms in to gaseous state, leaving
negligible residue and the space occupied by the pattern is
filled by the metal.
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 TYPES OF PATTERN MATERIALS

Pattern Materials
Solid Patterns
Removable & Disposable
Pattern
Split Patterns
Match plate pattern

Gated pattern

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 TYPES OF PATTERN MATERIALS

Solid pattern:
This type of pattern is made as a single piece
pattern, which has no partings or loose piece. A solid
pattern is shown in Fig. Such patterns are generally
used for castings of simple shapes.
1. Many patterns cannot be made in a single piece
because of the difficulties encountered in
removing them from the mould. To eliminate this
difficulty, patterns are made in two parts, so that
half of the pattern will be in the lower part of the
mould and half in the upper part.
2. The split in the pattern occurs at the parting line of
the mould. The two parts are aligned by means of
Dowel pins as shown in Fig.
In case of complicated castings, a pattern may be
made in three or more parts. Such patterns are
known as multi-piece patterns.

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 CONTD.

1. For producing small-sized castings, in one mould

many cavities may be made . This is done by making
a gated pattern in which number of small patterns, of
the desired casting, are attached to a single runner by
means of gates.
2. Generally, gated patterns are made of metal to make
them strong, A gated pattern for eight small castings
is shown in Fig.

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Match plate pattern
1.When the split patterns are attached on either side of the
match plate, it is called as match plate pattern.
2.A match plate is a plate on which two halves of a split pattern
is mounted, on either side, such that one side is used to prepare
one flask and the other side is used to prepare other flask. This
facilitates perfect alignment and easy removal of pattern.
3. Match plate patterns speed up production and help in
maintaining uniformity in the size and shape of the castings.

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 CONTD.

Disposal Pattern
1.In this case the patterns are made from polystyrene or
other materials and sand is rammed around them.
2.The pattern is left in the mould instead of being removed
from the sand.
3.The pattern material vaporizes when the molten metal is
poured in to the mould and the cavity thus created is filled
with molten metal.
4.The method is also known as full mould process or cavity
less.

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 CONTD.

DISPOSAL PATTERN

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 Pattern Allowances
A pattern is always made larger than the required size of the
casting considering the various allowances. It affects the
dimensional characteristics and shape of the casting.
These are the allowances which are usually provided in a
pattern.
Shrinkage Allowance: ( contraction allowance)
1.All metals used for casting shrink after solidification in the
mould and there fore, the pattern must be made larger than
the required casting.
2.The shrinkage allowance differs from metal to metal.
3.The amount of allowance provided depends upon the type of
material, its composition, and pouring temperature.
4.Shrinkage allowance is 1 to 2 % for gray cast iron and non
ferrous castings and 2 to 3 % for steel castings.
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 Pattern Allowances

Machining Allowances:
1.The allowance is provided on the pattern if the casting is to
be machined.
2.This allowance is given in addition to shrinkage allowance.
3.The amount of this allowance varies from 1.6 to 12.5 mm
which depends upon the type of the casting metal, size and
the shape of the casting.

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 Pattern Allowances

Draft Allowances:
1.It is a taper which is given to all the vertical walls of the
pattern for easy and clean withdraw of the pattern from the
sand without damaging the mould cavity.
2.It may be expressed in millimetres on a side or in
degrees. The amount of taper varies with the type of
patterns.

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Rapping or shaking allowance
1.During moulding, to withdraw the pattern from the rammed
sand, it is rapped to loosen it from the sand, so that it can be
easily withdrawn from the mould cavity without damaging the
mould walls. When a pattern is rapped for easy withdrawals, the
mould cavity is enlarged. To account for this increase in size of
cavity, the pattern size is reduced, i.e. the pattern is made
smaller by an amount equal to the mould enlargement that may
take place during rapping.
2.The amount of rapping allowance depends upon factors such
as
a)extent of rapping,
b)degree of compaction of sand, and
c)size of mould, most of these are difficult to evaluate.
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 NUMERICALS
A job shown in the Figure is to be made of steel by casting
process. The mould for this job is made from a wooden
pattern. Determine the dimensions of the wooden pattern.
Assume machining allowance of 2 mm on each side, taper
allowance of 1 degree and a shrinkage allowance of 2%.

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 NUMERICALS
MACHINING ALLOWANCE
It is given that machining allowance of 2 mm on each side is
to be given. Thus, each side is increased by 2 mm resulting in
the basic dimension of the pattern as shown in Figure (a). The
required casting is shown with dotted lines.

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 NUMERICALS

DRAFT ALLOWANCE
The draft allowance is to be provided on the vertical sides (24
mm long). Considering the given taper allowance of 1
degree, the side view of the pattern would be as shown in
Figure (b).
The taper allowance value x is calculated from the geometry
of the Figure (b) as
x = 24 tan 1 = 0.419 mm.
Thus, the top surface dimension is increased (a) (b)
to provide for draft allowance from A
54×84 mm to 54.838×84.838 mm
2 2
B
1˚

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 NUMERICALS

SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE
Given shrinkage allowance is 2%. Now, the dimensions of
pattern are increased by 2% on all sides.
That is, dimension 54 mm will become
54 + (54*2)/100 = 55.08mm or 55.1mm
The dimension 54.838 will become
54.838 + (54.838*2)/100 = 55.9mm
Similarly, all other dimensions are calculated and the final
dimensions of the pattern are shown in Figure

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 NUMERICALS

JOB WITH FINAL DIMENTION

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 NUMERICALS
A job shown in Figure 2 is to be made from steel by
casting process. The mold for this job is made from
wooden pattern. Determine the dimensions of the
wooden pattern assuming machining allowance of 3 mm
on each side, shrinkage allowance of 3% and shaking
allowance of 1 mm on length and width

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 NUMERICALS

MACHINING ALLOWANCE
Since given machining allowance is 3 mm on each
side, add 3 mm on each side of the part shown in
Figure. The dimensions of the pattern after
machining allowance will be:
L = 80 + 2×3 = 86 mm
W = 40 + 2×3 = 46 mm
H = 30 + 2×3 = 36 mm

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 NUMERICALS

SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE
The shrinkage allowance of 3% is added to all the
dimensions of the pattern shown in Figure. Dimension of
the pattern after providing shrinkage allowance of 3% will
be:
L = 86 + 86 × 3/100 = 88.58 mm,
W = 46 + 46 × 3/100 = 47.38 mm
H = 36 + 36 × 3/100 = 37.08 mm

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 Work piece dimension after shrinkage allowance

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 Given shaking allowance is 1 mm on length and width.
1.Recall that, shaking allowance is a negative allowance.
2.Hence, 1 mm has to be reduced from the calculated
values of length and width side.
3.Students are advised to note that the height of the
pattern doesn’t require any shaking allowance only
shrinkage allowance to width and length enough for
withdrawing the pattern from the mould.

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Therefore, final dimension of the pattern will be:
1.L = 88.58 – 1 = 87.58 mm
2.W = 47.38 – 1 = 46.38 mm
3.H = 37.08 mm

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 MOULD PREPARERATION
1. Moulding is the process of making a mould with the desired cavity
in a suitable material, like sand, to pour the molten metal.
2. The principal raw material used in moulding is the moulding sand.
3. Depending upon the raw material used for preparing the mould,
moulds may be classified as Green sand mould, dry sand mould,
loam mould and metal mould.
Type of material for mould preparation
Green sand mould:
 moulds are made using green sand
 Green sand permit easy repairing and finishing of moulds
 Used for small and medium sized castings
Dry sand moulds:
 These moulds are prepared using green sand
 Green sand is dried or baked to remove all the moisture it contains.
 Used for large castings

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 Loam Mould:
The mould is first built – up with bricks or large iron parts.
These moulds are plastered with loam sand.
Loam sand moulds is dried very slowly.
It takes very long time to prepare loam moulds.
Used for large castings.

Metal mould:
These moulds are made of metal and used for die
casting, permanent mould casting, and centrifugal casting
processes.

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 TYPES OF MOLDING SAND
Natural moulding sand
1. It is taken from riverbeds or are dug from mines.
2.It is also obtained by crushing and grinding soft yellow
sandstone and rocks.
Synthetic sands or artificial sand
1.Synthetic sands or artificial sand can be prepared in
the foundry shop by crushing sandstone and then
washing and grading these to yield a sand grade of
required shape and grain distribution.
2.The desired strength and bonding properties of this
sand are developed by additive materials.
3.Synthetic sand is more expensive than natural sand.

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 BROAD CLASSIFICATIONS

Moulding sand can be classified, according to its

use, and composition, into the following
categories:
1.Green sand
2.Dry sand
3.Loam sand
4.Parting Sand
5.Core Sand

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 GREEN SAND

1. It consists of silica sand with 18-30% clay and 4-8%

water. Clay and water furnish the bond for green sand.
2. Green sand retains the shape given to it.
3. The name `green sand' implies moist or undried sand, as
the mould made from this sand is used immediately to
pour the molten metal. It is not a green coloured sand.
4. The moulds using this sand are called as green sand
moulds.
5. Green sand is collected from natural resources. It has
the advantage of maintaining moisture content for a long
time.

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 DRY SAND

1. Green sand that has been dried or baked after the mould
preparation is called dry sand.
2. The dry sand moulds have greater strength, rigidity and
thermal stability.
3. These are suitable for large-sized castings, say, heavier
than 500 kg.

LOAM SAND
1.When clay and silica are mixed in equal proportions with
little or no special additives, it is called loam sand.
2.It is used for loam moulds of large grey iron casting

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 PARTING SAND

1. It is used to keep away the green sand from sticking to

the pattern and to allow the sand on the parting surface of
the flask to separate without clinging.
2. Composition is dried silica and sea sand in powder form.
3. This permits easy withdrawal of the pattern after
ramming.
4. Parting sand is free from clay and is dry.

CORE SAND
1. Sand used for making core is called core sand.
2. Core sand should be stronger than the moulding sand.
3. To make core sand, core oil, which is composed of
linseed oil, resin, and other binding materials, is mixed
with silica sand.
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 PROPERTIES OF A GOOD MOULDING SAND

PERMEABILITY or POROSITY
1.It is the property of sand which permits the steam and other
gases to pass through the sand mould.
2.The porosity of sand depends upon its grain size, grain
shape, moisture and clay components are the moulding sand.
3.If the sand is too fine, the permeability porosity will be low.
COHESIVENESS
1.It is the property of sand due to which the sand grains stick
together during ramming.
2. It is defined as the strength of the moulding sand.
REFRACTORINESS
1.The property which enables it to resist high temperature of
the molten metal without breaking down or fusing.

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 PROPERTIES OF A GOOD MOULDING SAND

COLLAPSIBILITY:
1.After solidification of the molten metal, the casting is required
to be removed from the mould.
2.If the moulding sand is easily collapsible, free contraction of
the metal as well as easy removal of the casting is possible.
FLOWABILITIES
1.It is that property of sand due to which it flows to all portions
of the moulding box or flask.
2.The sand must have sufficient plasticity to produce a good
mould.
ADHESIVENESS
1.It is that properties of sand due to it adheres or cling to the
sides of the moulding box.

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 IMPORTANT TERMS USED IN CASTING

1. Flask
2. Pattern
3. Parting line
4. Moulding sand
5. Facing Sand
6. Backing Sand
7. Core
8. Pouring Basin
9. Sprue
10. Runner
11. Gate
12. Chaplet
13. Riser

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 Important terms shown in Figure

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 EQUIPMENTS USED FOR MOULDING

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 MOULDING PRACTICES
Moulding Processes
The common moulding processes are:
1.Bench moulding
2.Floor moulding
3.Pit moulding
Bench moulding
1.Moulds are prepared on suitable benches
2.used for small moulds, which are light and can be
easily handled
3.used for making green sand, dry sand or skin dried
moulds
4.Slow and laborious method.

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 Floor moulding
1.Used when moulds are larger and cannot be
accommodated on benches.
2.Medium and larger moulds are prepared
3.Green or dry sands are used
4.This is also a slow method
Pit moulding
1.Used for big castings, which cannot be made by
flasks
2.Mould cavity is prepared in a pit dug in the earth floor
of the foundry
3.Used for making sand moulds.

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 TYPES OF MOULDING OPERATION

There are two types of moulding operations:

1. Hand moulding
2. Machine moulding

Hand moulding
1. All the moulding operations are performed
manually.
2. It is slow, laborious and time consuming.
3. It is difficult to obtain uniform hardness in moulds
by hand ramming.
4. Initial cost is low and simple tools are used.

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 TYPES OF MOULDING OPERATION

Machine moulding
1. For faster and uniform quality moulds
2. Uses various moulding machines for preparing
moulds.
3. The majority of operations like ramming the sand,
pattern withdrawal, and the finishing operations are
done by machines.
4. The operation is very fast, homogeneous and
suitable for any size of casting.
5. Initial cost is high and difficult shapes cannot be
obtained.

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 WHY TESTING OF SAND IS REQUIRED
1. Foundry sand testing is a process used to determine if
the foundry sand has the correct properties for a
certain casting process.
2. In a sand casting foundry there are broadly two
reasons for rejection of the casting — metal and sand
— each of which has a large number of internal
variables.
3. The defects arising from the sand can be prevented by
using sand testing equipment to measure the various
properties of the sand.
4. By testing of the sand we can know the mould ability
of the sand as a result the collapsibility and damaging
to the mould can be avoided.
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 TESTING OF SAND
The Moulding sand once prepared has to be tested to
know that the requisite properties are achieved
properly.
The tests that are to carried out are
1.Sand grain size
2.Clay content
3.Moisture content
4.Permeability test
5.Compression test
6.Shear strength
7.Dry Strength
8.Mould Hardness

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 NUMERICALS

For the figure shown below estimate the dimension of the

pattern if it is made of Steel casting. Assume shrinkage
allowance 21mm/m.

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 NUMERICALS
Solution
For side 200×21/1000=4.20 mm
For side 150×21/1000=3.15mm
For side 100×21/1000=2.10mm
For side 80×21/1000=1.68=1.70mm

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QUESTION
The down sprue leading into the runner of a certain
mold has a length = 175 mm. The cross-sectional
area at the base of the sprue is 400 mm2. The
mold cavity has a volume = 0.001 m3.Determine:
(a) the velocity of the molten metal flowing through
the base of the down sprue, (b) the volumetric flow
rate, and (c) the time required to fill the mold cavity

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 SOLUTION

(a) Velocity v = (2gh)0.5

= (2 x 9810 x 175) 0.5
= 1853 mm/s
(b) Volume flow rate Q = vA
= 1853 x 400
= 741,200 mm3/s
(c) Time to fill cavity MFT = V/Q

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 QUESTION
In casting experiments performed using a titanium
alloy and a zircon sand mold, it took 155 seconds
for a cube-shaped casting to solidify. The cube was
50 mm on a side. If the same alloy and mold type
were used, find the total solidification time for a
cylindrical casting in which the diameter = 30 mm
and length = 50 mm.

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 SOLUTION

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 Question
A mold cavity has the shape of a cube, 100 mm on a
side. Determine the volume and dimensions of the final
cube after cooling to room temperature if the cast metal
is copper. Assume that the mold is full at the start of
solidification and that shrinkage occurs uniformly in all
directions. For copper, solidification shrinkage is 4.9%,
solid contraction during cooling is 7.5%.

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 SOLUTION
(a) Volume of cavity V = (100)3= 106 mm3
(b) Volume of casting V= 106 (1-0.049)(1-0.075)
= 879,675 mm3
(c)Dimension on each side of cube
= (879,675)0.333
= 95.82 mm

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 CORES
CORES
1.To get holes or other internal cavities in castings,
cores are used.
2.A core may be defined as a sand shape or form, that
makes the contour of a casting for which no provision
has been made in the pattern.
3.Cores are placed in the moulds in specially created
cavities called core prints.
4.Cores may be made form sand, metal, plaster or
ceramics.
5.Core is like an obstruction placed and positioned in
the mould.

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 CORES
A good core must possess the following properties:
1.It must be strong to retain the shape while handling.
2.It must resist erosion by molten metal
3.It must be permeable to gases
4.It must have high refractoriness.
5.It must have good surface finish to replicate it on to the
casting.

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 CORE MAKING
Cores are made of clay-free silica sand, which is
thoroughly mixed with suitable binders, water and other
ingredients to produce a core mix.
This core mix is packed in to a core box that contains a
cavity of desired shape.
Core making consists of the following operations:
1.Core sand preparation
2.Core making
3.Core baking.

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 Thank You for Your Attention !

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