Fire Extinguishers

Fire Extinguishers
What you will learn…

– Types of Fires
– Fire Classes
– Fire Triangle
– Fire Tetrahedron
– Combustion
– Types of Extinguishers
– How to Use an Extinguisher
– Firefighting and Firefighting Safety
– Rules for Fires
– Glossary of Firefighting terms
– Flames and temperature of flames
– P.A.S.S
– R.A.C.E
– Conclusion

Fire
Fire, reaction involving fuel and
oxygen that produces heat and light
 A rapid, persistent chemical change
that releases heat and light and is
accompanied by flame, especially the
exothermic oxidation of a combustible
substance.
 The active principle operative in
combustion, manifested as a hot bright
shifting body of gas or as
incandescence; such gas or
incandescence.
 the state of burning, in which
substances combine chemically with
oxygen from the air and give out
bright light, heat, and smoke
An outdoor fire using
wood, termed a bonfire.
Conflagration
 A conflagration or a blaze is an uncontrolled burning that
threatens human life, health, or property.
 A conflagration can be accidentally begun, naturally caused
(wildfire), or intentionally created (arson).
 Arson can be accomplished for the purpose of sabotage or
diversion, and also can be the consequence of pyromania.
During conflagration the property is damaged or destroyed
by fire.
 Sometimes the conflagration produces a firestorm, in which the
central column of rising heated air induces strong inward
winds, which supply oxygen to the fire.
 Conflagrations can result in casualties, deaths, or injuries
from smoke inhalation or burns.
Conflagration: definitions
 a destructive fire, usually an extensive one

 a very intense and uncontrolled fire
 a large disastrous fire
Conflagration
Forest fire
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Combustion
 Combustion or burning is the sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between
a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat and conversion of
chemical species.
 The release of heat can result in the production of light in the form of either glowing or
a flame.
 Fuels of interest often include organic compounds (especially hydrocarbons) in the
gas, liquid or solid phase.
 In a complete combustion reaction, a compound reacts with an oxidizing element, such
as oxygen or fluorine, and the products are compounds of each element in the fuel with
the oxidizing element.
 For example:
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O + energy
 A simple example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen, which is a
commonly used reaction in rocket engines:
2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O(g) + heat
 The result is water vapor.
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Nature of Fire
Fireis a chemical reaction
known as combustion.
Represented as Fire
Tetrahedron: Heat, Oxygen, fuel
and chemical chain reaction
Essence of process
– Fuel is heated and gives off
vapor
– These vapors ignite and flames
cause chain reaction to begin
– Chain reaction commences early
in the burning process and as it
increases its intensity, it
accelerates the rate of combustion
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Causes of
Fire
 Fire will occur with right
mixture of three elements: a source

of fuel, oxygen and a source of
ignition.
 Most work environments have
many sources of combustible
materials and sources of possible
ignition.
Fire Behaviour

Fire must obey physical laws
 Where there is fire there is
smoke
 It is the vapour that burns
 Oxygen increases fire intensity
 The principle of cooling,
smothering and starving
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Fire Safety Management
 comprised of three elements:
– Fire Prevention
– Fire Protection
– Fire Suppression
 Fire Prevention
– inspections, training, proper storage, housekeeping, reporting &
correcting hazards etc
Fire Protection
– equipments and/or mechanisms such as fire alarm systems, emergency
lightings, fire extinguishers, hosereels and sprinklers etc.
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FireSafety Management
Fire Suppression
– reducing the heat
– removing or reducing the oxygen
– removing the fuel
– Stopping the chemical chain reaction
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Fire Classes
 In firefighting, fires are identified according to one or
more fire classes.
 Each class designates the fuel involved in the fire,
and thus the most appropriate extinguishing agent.
 The classifications allow selection of extinguishing
agents along lines of effectiveness at putting the type
of fire out, as well as avoiding unwanted side-effects.
 For example, non-conductive extinguishing agents
are rated for electrical fires, so to avoid electrocuting
the firefighter.
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Multiple classification systems
 Multiple classification systems exist,
with different designations for the
various classes of fire.
 The United States uses
the NFPA system.
 Europe use the European Standard
"Classification of fires
 Australasia use another.
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Comparison of fire classes
American European Australian/Asian Fuel/Heat source
Class A Class A Class A Ordinary combustibles
Class B Class B Flammable liquids

Class B
Class C Class C Flammable gases
Class C UNCLASSIFIED Class E Electrical equipment
Class D Class D Class D Combustible metals
Class K Class F Class F Cooking oil or fat

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European Standard
Classification of fires
 Based on the combustible material involved, the fire can be
classified. In the ”, the fires are classified as:
1. Class A fire: Ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, carton,
textile, and PVC;
2. Class B fire: Flammable liquids and solids which can take a liquid
form, such as benzene, gasoline, oil;
3. Class C fire: Flammable gases, such as butane, propane, and natural
gas;
4. Class D fire: Combustible metals, such as iron, aluminum, sodium,
and magnesium;
5. Class F fire: Cooking media, such as oils and fats, in cooking
appliances;
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American standard
 In the American standard, fires are classified as:
 Class A fire: Ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper,
carton, textile, and PVC;
 Class B fire: Flammable liquid or gaseous fuels such benzene,
gasoline, oil, butane, propane, and natural gas;
 Class C fire: Involving energized electrical equipment, often
caused by short circuits or overheated electrical cables;
 Class D fire: Combustible metals, such as iron, aluminum,
sodium, and magnesium;
 Class K fire: Containing a fat element, such as cooking oil
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Glossary of Firefighting terms
Glossary :An alphabetical list of
words relating to a specific subject,
text, or dialect, with explanations.
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Some words on Glossary of
Firefighting terms
 Firefighting jargon includes a diverse lexicon of both common
and idiosyncratic terms.
 One problem that exists in trying to create a list such as this is that
much of the terminology used by a particular department is specifically
defined in their particular standing operating procedures such that two
departments may have completely different terms for the same thing.
 For example, depending on who you ask, a safety team may be referred
to as a standby, a RIT or RIG or RIC (rapid intervention
team/group/crew), or a FAST (firefighter assist and search team).
Furthermore, a department may change a definition within its SOP, such
that one year it may be RIT, and the next RIG or RIC.
 The variability of firefighter jargon should not be taken as a rule; some
terms are fairly universal (e.g. stand-pipe, hydrant, chief).
 But keep in mind that any term defined here may be department- or
region-specific, or at least more idiosyncratic than you may realize.
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Firefighting terms
 Class A: A fire involving combustibles such as wood,
paper, and other natural materials.
 Class B: A fire involving hydrocarbons.
 Class C: An electrical fire.
 Class D: A fire involving metals, such
as sodium, titanium, magnesium, potassium, uraniu
m,lithium, plutonium and calcium.
 Class E (Europe/Australia): A composite Class
A/Class B fire that is not also a Class C fire.
 Class F (Europe/Australia)
 Class K: A fire involving cooking oils. Technically,
this is a subclass of Class B.
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Firefighting terms
 Above-ground storage tank: Storage tank that is not buried. Compare Underground
storage tank. Unburied tanks are more prone to physical damage, and leaks are
released to the air or ground, rather than the soil surrounding a buried tank.
 Accelerant: flammable fuel (often liquid) used by some arsonists to increase size or
intensity of fire. May also be accidentally introduced when HAZMAT becomes
involved in fire.
 Alarm: (1) system for detecting and reporting unusual conditions, such as smoke,
fire, flood, loss of air, HAZMAT release, etc; (2) centralized dispatch center for
interpreting alarms and dispatching resources. See fire alarm control panel.
 All companies working: Status report at fire scene indicating that available
manpower is busy, and more resources may become necessary if incident is not
controlled soon.
 Ammonium nitrate: component of ANFO; contents of two ships that exploded in
Texas City Disaster, killing over 500 people, including all 28 volunteer firefighters
at the scene.

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Firefighting terms
 ANFO: Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil combination making a high explosive.
 Arson: the crime of maliciously (or perhaps recklessly) setting fire to property,
especially a dwelling. Punishable in various degrees, depending upon the
circumstances.
 Authority Having Jurisdiction (or AHJ): organization or agency with legal
authority over a given type of incident (e.g, fire, EMS, SAR, arson, HAZMAT);
may change or overlap as incident changes, as where fire becomes arson
investigation once danger is over, or Motor Vehicle Accident becomes police
business after vehicle extrication, fire, and HAZMAT issues are complete.
 Autoextended fire: structure fire that has gone out a window or other opening
on one floor and ignited materials above, on another floor or other space (attic,
cockloft).
 Available flow: total amount of water that can be put on a fire, depending
upon water supply, pump size, hoses, and distance to the fire. IC must assess
available flow to determine whether additional apparatus or streams are
required. See Fire flow requirement.

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Firefighting terms
 Backdraft: A fire phenomenom caused when heat and heavy smoke (unburned fuel
particles) accumulate inside a compartment, depleting the available air, and then
oxygen/air is re-introduced, completing the fire triangle and causing rapid
combustion.
 Backfiring: A tactic used in wildland firefighting associated with indirect attak, by
intentionally setting fire to fuels inside the control line. Most often used to contain a
rapidly spreading fire, placing control lines at places where the fire can be fought on
the firefighter's terms.
 Backflow preventer: Automatic valve used in hose accessories to ensure water
flows only in one direction. Used in permanent fire department connections (FDC) to
sprinklers and dry standpipes, as well as portable devices used in firefighting.
 Bank down: What the smoke does as it fills a room, banks down to the foor, creating
several layers of heat and smoke at different temperatures -- the coolest at the
bottom.
 Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE): Explosion of a pressure tank
containing an overheated material when the vapor expansion rate exceeds the
pressure relief capacity (e.g., steam boiler or propane tank). If the contents are
flammable, the rapidly released vapor may react in a secondary fuel-air explosion.

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Firefighting terms
 GPM: Gallons Per Minute or how many gallons are
being pumped out of a piece of equipment every
minute
 GPM method ("gallons per minute"): Calculation of
how much water, in GPM, will be necessary to
extinguish a given volume of fire, under the
circumstances (e.g., fuel class, containment,
exposures, etc.).
 Grease fire: A fire involving any manner of cooking
oil or other flammable cooking or lubricating
materials. Also known as a Class B, F or K fire.
 Goer: An incident with persons reported.
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Firefighting terms
 Fire prevention: Fire safety; standards for minimizing fire hazards. In some departments also
the name of the division tasked with promoting fire safety and fire code compliance in the
community.
 Fire Prevention Week: An annual observation of fire safety education in the United
States and Canada, often involving lectures or demonstrations by firefighters, sponsored by
the National Fire Protection Association, since 1925.
 Fire-resistant: Materials designed or treated to have an increased fire point.
 Firestorm: A conflagration of great enough proportions to noticeably create its own wind
conditions.
 Fire tetrahedron: The fire tetrahedron is based on the components of igniting or extinguishing
a fire. Each component represents a property necessary to sustain fire: fuel, oxygen, heat, and
chemical chain reaction. Extinguishment is based upon removing or hindering any one of
these properties.
 Fire triangle: Model for understanding the major components necessary for fire: heat, fuel and
oxygen. See also fire tetrahedron for a more comprehensive model.
 Fire wall: Building structure designed to delay horizontal spread of a fire from one area of a
building to another; often regulated by fire code and required to have self-closing doors, and
fireproof construction.
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Firefighting terms
 Fit test: Periodic test of how well the facepiece of an SCBA fits a particular
firefighter.
 Flameover: Also known as rollover. The ignition of heated fire gasses at the ceiling
level only. While dangerous to firefighters, this is not as deadly as Flashovr
 Flammable range, limits: The percentage mixture of fumes with air that will
sustain fire; outside the limits the mixture is either too lean or too rich to burn.
 Flash point: Lowest temperature at which a material will emit vapor combustible
in air mixture. Higher than Flame point of same material.
 Flashover: simultaneous ignition of combustible materials in a closed space, as
when materials simultaneously reach their fire point; may also result in rollover.
 Foam: Extinguishing agent formed by mixing Foam concentrate with water and
aerating the solution for expansion. Used for smothering large Class A or B fires.
May be injected into fire streams at adjustable concentrations.
 Foam Concentrate: Raw foam liquid as it rests in it storage container before the
introduction of water and air.
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Firefighting terms
 Hazard: a source of danger of personal injury or property
damage; fire hazard refers to conditions that may result in fire
or explosion, or may increase spread of an accidental fire, or
prevent escape from fire. Under worker safety and health
regulations, employers have a general duty to provide a
workplace free of hazards. See also fire prevention, and
HAZMAT.
 HAZMAT: Hazardous materials, including solids, liquids, or
gasses that may cause injury, death, or damage if released or
triggered.
 High-pressure system: A supplemental pump system used to
pressurize the water supply, sometimes used during a large
fire, or whenever more than one hydrant is being used.
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Firefighting terms
 Hot zone: contaminated area of HAZMAT incident that
must be isolated; requires suitable protective equipment to
enter and decontamination upon exit; minimum hot zone
distance from unknown material with unknown release is
330 feet (United Nations Emergency Response Guidebook);
surrounded by "warm zone" where decontamination takes
place.
 High-rise building: Any building taller than three or four

stories, depending upon local usage, requiring firefighters
to climb stairs or aerial ladders for access to upper floors.
 High-rise pack: A shoulder load of hose with a nozzle and
other tools necessary to connect the hose to a standpipe.
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Firefighting terms
 IDLH: Any situation deemed Immediately Dangerous to Life and
Health. More narrowly defined by OSHA. An area of maximum
danger to firefighters.
 Incident Commander: The officer in charge of all activities at an
incident. See Incident Command System.
 Incident Safety Officer: The officer in charge of scene safety at an
incident. See Incident Command System.
 Indirect attack: Method of firefighting in which water is pumped onto
materials above or near the fire so that the splash rains onto the fire,
often used where a structure is unsafe to enter.
 Initial attack: First point of attack on a fire where hose lines or fuel
separation are used to prevent further extension of the fire.
 Interface zone (also wildland/structural interface or urban/wildland
interface): The zone where wildfires threaten structures or structural
fires threaten wildlands, such as in residential areas adjacent to forests.
This requires both wildland firefighting and structural firefighting in
the same location, which involve very different tactics and equipment.
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Firefighting terms
 Ladder company: A group of fire fighters, officers and
engineers that staff a ladder truck.
 Level I, II, III Incident: A HAZMAT term denoting the
severity of the incident and the type of response that may be
necessary, where Level III is the largest or most dangerous.
 Life safety code: NFPA publication.
 Life line: A trademark for a wireless emergency call unit that
triggers a telephone call to an emergency dispatcher when a
button is pressed.
 Live line: A fire hose under pressure from a pump. Also, an
energized electrical line that may cause a hazard to firefighters.
 Loaded stream: A hose stream that has had a surfactant added
to assist in penetrating burning materials.
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Firefighting terms
 Mass casualty: Any incident that produces a large number of injured
persons requiring emergency medical treatment and transportation to a
medical facility. The exact number of patients that makes an incident
"mass casualty" is defined by departmental procedures and may vary
from area to area.
 Master box: An alarm system in which a local fire-alarm system
triggers a fire alarm box (the master box) to signal the fire condition to
a central monitor.
 Master stream: A large nozzle, either portable or fixed to a pumper,
capable of throwing large amounts of water relatively long distances.
 Means of egress: The way out of a building during an emergency;
may be by door, window, hallway, or exterior fire escape; local fire
codes will often dictate the size. location and type according to the
number of occupants and the type of occupancy.
 Muliple alarms: A request by an incident commander for additional
personnel and apparatus. Each department will vary on the number of
apparatus and personnel on each additional alarm.
 Mutual aid: An agreement between nearby fire companies to assist
each other during emergencies by responding with available
manpower and apparatus.
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Firefighting terms
 NFPA: The National Fire Protection Association, which sets a number
of standards for firefighting, equipment, and fire protection in the
United States, and also adopted in many other countries.

 NIOSH: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. A
U.S. agency responsible for investigation of workplace deaths,
including firefighters.
 Nozzle pressure: Pressure in a fire hose measured at the nozzle.

 Nozzle reach: The distance a fire stream will travel from the nozzle
tip before breaking up or evaporating due to air friction or heat.
 Nozzle reaction: The force felt when water is pumped through a

nozzle, e.g., 350 US gallons per minute (22 L/s) would produce a
force of 40 pounds force (180 N) against the firefighter holding the
nozzle.
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Firefighting terms
 Occupancy: Zoning and safety code term used to determine how a
structure is permitted to be used and occupied, which in turn dictates the
necessary safety structures and procedures.
 Occupancy class: General categories of structures for purpose of safety
planning, such as for hospital, assembly, industrial, single-family dwelling,
apartment building, commercial, etc. Further broken down by types of
hazards associated with particular occupancies, such as gas stations.
 Occupant-use hose: Light-weight firehose coupled to standpipe for
emergency use by building occupants prior to arrival of firefighters. Often
accessible by breaking glass to unlock secure enclosure.
 Offensive attack: Method of firefighting in which water or other
extinguisher is taken directly to the seat of the fire, as opposed to being
pumped in that general direction from a safe distance.
 On-call: Personnel who can be summoned (and paid) when necessary to
respond to an incident; a type of "volunteer" fire department.
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Firefighting terms
 OSHA: U.S. government agency concerned with regulating
employee safety, particularly in hazardous occupations such as
firefighting.

 Overhauling: Late stage in fire-suppression process during
which the burned area is carefully examined for remaining
sources of heat that may re-kindle the fire. Often coincides
with salvageoperations to prevent further loss to structure or its
contents, as well as fire-cause determination and preservation of
evidence.

 Oxidizer: A hazardous material containing oxygen that can
combine with adjacent fuel to start or feed a fire.
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Firefighting terms
 Personal alert safety system: See PASS device in Glossary of
firefighting equipment.

 Personnel accountability report: End-result of personnel
accountability system. Best report is "All hands, AOK" - worst is
"squad missing".

 Personnel accountability system: Tag, 'passport', or other system
for identification and tracking of personnel at an incident, especially
those entering and leaving an IDLH area; intended to permit rapid
determination of who may be at risk or lost during sudden changes
at the scene.

 Positive pressure: Pressure at higher than atmospheric; used in
SCBA facepieces and in smoke-proof stairwells to reduce entry of
smoke or fumes through small openings.
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Firefighting terms
 Pre-fire, pre-incident planning: Information
collected by fire prevention officers to assist in
identifying hazards and the equipment, supplies,
personnel, skills, and procedures needed to deal with
a potential incident.
 Public alarm: Means for public to report a fire,
includes telephone, street-corner pull-boxes, building
pull-stations, and manual bells or sirens in rural
areas.
 Pyrolysis: Process of converting a solid substance to
combustible fumes by raising its temperature. See
also vaporization of liquids.
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Firefighting terms
 Radiant extension: fire that has transferred ignition heat to
adjacent materials across open space. One reason some city fire
codes prohibit windows facing each other in adjacent
warehouses.
 Recovery: Location and removal of deceased victims. Also, the
time needed for a firefighter to spend in rehab before being
considered ready to continue working the incident.
 Residual pressure: The amount of pressure in a hydrant
system when a hydrant is fully open, such as during a fire;
should be engineered to provide domestic supply of water to
homes and businesses during a large fire in the district.
 Run card system: A system of pre-planning for fire protection in
which information about specific detectors, hazards, or other
emergency response plans is indexed by location, for rapid
reference during an alarm.
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Firefighting terms
 Structural fire: Fire involving houses, buildings, or other
structures. Urban fire departments are primarily geared toward
structural firefighting. The terms structural fire and structural
firefighting are often used to distinguish them from wildland fire.
 Salvage, salvage cover: Heavy-duty tarpaulins folded or rolled
for quick deployment to cover personal property subjected to
possible water or other damage during firefighting.
 Scuttle hatch: Ready-made opening in roof that can be opened
for vertical ventilation.
 earch and rescue (or SAR): Entering a fire building or collapse
zone for an orderly search for victims and removal of live
victims. Becomes "recovery" if victims are not likely to be found
alive.
 Shoulder load: The amount of hose a single firefighter can pull
off a hose wagon or pumper truck and carry toward the fire.
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Firefighting terms
 Tailboard: Portion at rear of fire engine where firefighters could
stand and ride (now considered overly dangerous), or step up
to access hoses in the hose bed.
 Two-in, two-out (or "two in/two out": Refers to the standard
safety tactic of having one team of two firefighters enter a
hazardous zone (IDLH), while at least two others stand by
outside in case the first two need rescue — thus requiring a
minimum of four firefighters on scene prior to starting interior
attack. Also refers to the "buddy system" in which firefighters
never enter or leave a burning structure alone.
 Type I, II, III, IV, V Building: U.S. classification system for fire
resistance of building construction types, including definitions
for "resistive" Type I, "non-combustible" Type II, "ordinary"
Type III, heavy timber Type IV, and "frame construction" Type
V (i.e., made entirely of wood).
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Firefighting terms
 Universal precautions: The use of safety barriers (gloves, mask,
goggles) to limit an emergency responder's contact with contaminants,
especially fluids of injured patients.
 Vapor suppression: Process of reducing the amount of flammable or
other hazardous vapors, from a flammable liquid, mixing with air,
typically by careful application of a foam blanket on top of a pool of
material.
 Vertical ventilation: Ventilation technique making use of the principle
of convection in which heated gases naturally rise.
 Voids (building): Enclosed portions of a building where fire can
spread undetected.
 Vollie: A volunteer firefighter.
 Volunteer fire department: A group of part-time firefighters who may
be unpaid or paid when on-call, during incidents, or drills. Often
professionally trained and equipped with state-of-the-art equipment.
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Firefighting terms
 Water drop: A forest fire fighting technique when an aircraft
drops a supply of water onto an exposed fire from above.
 Water hammer: Large, damaging shock wave in a water supply
system caused by shutting a valve quickly, or by permitting a
vehicle to drive across an unprotected fire hose.
 Wildfire or Wildland fire: Fire in forests, grasslands, prairies,
or other natural areas, not involving structure fires (although
wildland fires may threaten structures or vice versa -
see interface zone.)
 Working fire: A fire that is in the process of being suppressed;
often a cue for dispatch of additional resources.
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Firefighting terms
 Yield: What other drivers are supposed

to do when they see or hear emergency
vehicles approaching with lights
and/or sirens activated.
 Zone: Section of structure indicated
on fire alarm control panel where sensor
was activated.
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Firefighting terms
 AFA: Automatic Fire Alarm/Actuating Fire Alarm

 Deflagration: An explosion with a propagation front traveling
at subsonic speeds, as compared to supersonic detonation.
 Draft: The process of pumping water from a static source below
the pump.
 DOS: Death On Scene.
 Drills: training during which an emergency is simulated and
the trainees go through the steps of responding as if it were a
real emergency.
 Electrical fire: A fire in which the primary source of heat is
electricity, resulting in combustion of adjacent insulation and
other materials; may be hazardous to attempt to extinguish
using water.
 EMS: Emergency medical service(s).
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Self-contained breathing
apparatus
 A self contained breathing apparatus, or SCBA, sometimes referred to as
a Compressed Air Breathing Apparatus (CABA), air pack, or
simply Breathing Apparatus (BA) is a device worn
by rescue workers, firefighters, and others to provide breathable air in
anIDLH (Immediate Danger to Life and Health) Atmosphere.
 When not used underwater, they are sometimes called industrial breathing
sets.
 The term "self-contained" means that the breathing set is not dependent on a
remote supply (e.g., through a long hose). If designed for use under water, it
is called SCUBA (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus).
 An SCBA typically has three main components: a high-pressure tank
(e.g., 2200 psi to 4500 psi), a pressure regulator, and an inhalation connection
(mouthpiece, mouth mask or face mask), connected together and mounted to
a carrying frame.
 There are two kinds of SCBA: open circuit and closed circuit.
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Self-contained breathing
apparatus
4
NFPA 1971
NFPA 1971 Standard on Protective Ensembles
for Structural Fire Fighting & Proximity Fire
Fighting 2007 Edition sets minimum
guidelines for the construction and design of
fire service protective equipment.
 In addition, NFPA 1971 requires certain
labeling for compliance.
 You should make sure each piece of your
PPE is NFPA compliant.
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PPE Components
5
Helmet Key Components
Hard Cover
Reflective Striping
Eye Protection
(Goggles)
Flame Retardant Neck

Cover Chin Strap
Fold Down Eye

Protection
Helmet Adjustment
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Eye Protection
 Face Shields & Goggles
Face shields will only provide limited eye

protection. Goggles or safety glasses
should be used when there is an increased
exposure to flying particles.
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Classes of Fire
Class A
-Ordinary combustibles materials like wood, paper, cloth, furnishing, plastics and
rubber
Class B
-Flammable liquids, solvents, oils, paints, thinner and flammable gases
-Combustible liquids such as kerosene
Class C
-Live electrical equipment like electrical mains, transformers and electrical
appliances (extinguishing medium must be electrically non-conductive)
Class D
-Combustible metals e.g. potassium, magnesium, titanium, sodium, lithium and
zirconium
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The UK recognizes six fire classes
 Class A fires involve organic solids such as paper and

wood.
 Class B fires involve flammable or combustible
liquids. Petrol, grease and oil fires are included in
this class.
 Class C fires involve flammable gases
 Class D fires involve combustible metals.
 Class E fires involving electrical appliances (no
longer used as when the power supply is turned off
an electrical fire can fall into any category)
 Class F fires involve cooking fat and oil.
5
Fire extinguisher
 A fire extinguisher is an active fire
protection device used to extinguish
or control small fires, often in
emergency situations.
 It is not intended for use on an out-
of-control fire, such as one which has
reached the ceiling, endangers the
user (i.e. no escape route, smoke,
explosion hazard, etc.), or otherwise
requires the expertise of a fire
department.
 Typically, a fire extinguisher consists
of a hand-held cylindrical pressure
vessel containing an agent which can
be discharged to extinguish a fire.
5
Fire Extinguisher: some history
 The first fire extinguisher of which there is any record was patented in
England in 1723 by Ambrose Godfrey, a celebrated chemist.
 The modern fire extinguisher was invented by British Captain George
William Manby in 1818.
 The soda-acid extinguisher was first patented in 1866 by Francois
Carlier of France
 The chemical foam extinguisher was invented in 1904 by Aleksandr
Loran in Russia
 In 1910, The Pyrene Manufacturing Company of Delaware filed a
patent for a using carbon tetrachloride (CTC) to extinguish fires
 The carbon dioxide (CO2) extinguisher was invented (at least in the
US) by the Walter Kidde Company in 1924
 In the 1970s, Halon 1211 came over to the US from Europe, where it
had been used since the late 40s or early 50s.
5
Fire Extinguisher Anatomy
PRESSURE GAUGE
DISCHARGE LEVER (not found on CO2
extinguishers)
DISCHARGE LOCKING PIN CARRYING

AND SEAL HANDLE
DISCHARGE HOSE
DATA PLATE
DISCHARGE NOZZLE BODY
DISCHARGE ORIFICE
5
Suitable for use on Fire Classes
Type Pre-1997 Current (brackets denote sometimes
applicable)
Water Solid red Solid red A
Red with a
Foam Solid blue A B
blue band
Red with a Red with a

Dry chemical (powder) A B C E
white band white band
Red with a Red with a

Carbon dioxide (A) B D F
black band black band
Vaporising liquid (non- Not yet in Red with a

A B C E
halon clean agents) use yellow band
No longer
Halon Solid yellow A B E
produced
Solid Red with an

Wet chemical A F
oatmeal oatmeal band
5
United States
Fire Geometric
Pictogram Intended Use
Class Symbol
Garbage can and wood Ordinary solid

A Green Triangle
pile burning combustibles
Fuel container and Flammable liquids

B Red Square
burning puddle and gases
Electric plug and burning Energized electrical

C Blue Circle
outlet equipment
Yellow Decagon Burning Gear and

D Combustible metals
(Star) Bearing
K Black Hexagon Pan burning Cooking oils and fats
6
Suitable for use on fire
Old classes
Type BS EN 3 colour code
code (brackets denote sometimes
applicable)
Signal
Water Signal red A
red
Red with a cream panel above the

Foam Cream A B
operating instructions
French Red with a blue panel above the

Dry powder (A) B C E
blue operating instructions
Carbon Red with a black panel above the

dioxide CO2 Black B E
operating instructions
Wet Not yet Red with a canary yellow panel above

A (B) F
chemical in use the operating instructions
Class D French Red with a blue panel above the

D
powder blue operating instructions
Halon Emerald
No longer in general use A B E
1211/BCF Green
6
Types of Fire Extinguisher
Water Extinguisher
-Used on Class A fires
-6 or 9 litres, pressurized gas is air or nitrogen
-Operating pressure is 10 bar
-Use caution to avoid scattering lightweight materials with pressurized
water and spreading the fire
Dry Chemical (ABC)

-Effective for Class A, B and C fires
-1 to 12 kg, pressurized gas is air or nitrogen
-Operating pressure is 7.5 to 15 bar
Carbon Dioxide
-Used for Class B and C fires
-Filled with liquid CO2 to two-thirds, one-third is evaporated gas
-Comes with discharge horn to stop entrainment of air with CO2.
6
Rules for Fighting Fire
Just Remember the three A’s
ACTIVATE the building alarm or notify SCDF by calling 995. Or, have
someone else to do it for you.
ASSIST any persons in immediate danger, or those incapable on their own, to

exit the building, without risk to yourself.
Only after these two are completed, should you ATTEMPT the extinguish the
fire
6
Fire Extinguisher Use
•It is important to know the  Take time to read the operating
locations and the types of fire instructions and warnings
extinguishers in your area prior found on the fire extinguishers.
to actually using one. Not all fire extinguishers look
alike.
•Fire extinguishers can be
heavy, so it is a good idea to
 Practice by releasing the
practice by picking up and discharge horn or hose and
aiming it at the base of imagined
holding an fire extinguisher to fire. Do not release the pin or
get an idea of weight and feel. squeeze the lever. This will
break the fire extinguisher seal
and cause it to lose pressure.
6
CHEMISTRY OF FIRE
 Fire results from a rapid
chemical reaction between a
fuel, such as wood or
gasoline, and oxygen.
 Reactions that involve
oxygen and other elements
are called oxidation
reactions.
 Chemists use the word
combustion to refer to the
oxidation reaction that
produces fire.
 Combustion generates light,
heat, gases, and soot.
6
National Fire Protection
Association,NFPA
 Standards for the selection, placement, and testing of portable fire
extinguishers are issued by the National Fire Protection Association, a
nonprofit technical and educational organization in Quincy,
Massachusetts.
 The standards establish the minimum requirements for all types and
sizes of extinguishers that are listed and rated by testing laboratories
against standard test fires of the types they are designed to control.
 Each extinguisher is rated as to both type and size of the fire
extinguished.
 For example, a 20-B extinguisher should extinguish a flammable-
liquids fire that is 20 times the size of a fire that an extinguisher rated 1-
B would extinguish.
 Extinguishers that cannot extinguish the minimum size test fires are
not listed or rated.
 Some extinguishers will put out only one class of fire; others are used
for two or even three classes; none is suitable for all four classes.
6
Types of Fires
Fires Are Classified
by the type FUEL they
burn.
The 4 Types are

–A
–B
–C
–D
6
Class A Fires
Wood
Paper
Plastic
Rags
6
Class B Fires
Gasoline
Oil
Grease
Paint
6
Class C Fires
Electrical Fires
– Office Equipment
– Motors
– Generator
– Transformer
– Switchgear
– Heaters
7
Class D Fires
Metals
– Potassium
– Sodium
– Aluminum
– Magnesium
7
Classes of fires
 Class A fire = Ordinary combustibles

 Class B fire = Petroleum base
 Class C fire = Electrical
 Class D fire = Combustible metal
7
7
Fire Classes
A Trash Wood Paper C Electrical Equipment
 wood
 cloth • energized
 paper electrical
 rubber equipment
 many plastics
• gasoline COMBUSTIBLE • magnesium

B Liquids Grease
• oil • sodium
• grease • potassium
• tar • titanium
•
•
oil-based
paint
lacquer
D •
•
zirconium
other
flammable
• flammable METALS metals
gases
7
Fire Classes (cont.)
CLASS K FIRES
K Cooking Media
• Recently recognized by NFPA 10.
• Fires involving combustible

vegetable or animal non-
saturated cooking fats in
commercial cooking equipment.
7
Firefighting
Fire Fighting, techniques and equipment used to
extinguish fires and limit the damage caused by
them.
Fire fighting consists of removing one or more of the
three elements essential to combustion—fuel, heat,
and oxygen—or of interrupting the combustion
chain reaction.
7
Fire Extinguisher Anatomy
PRESSURE GAUGE
DISCHARGE LEVER (not found on CO2
extinguishers)
DISCHARGE LOCKING PIN CARRYING

AND SEAL HANDLE
DISCHARGE HOSE
DATA PLATE
DISCHARGE NOZZLE BODY
DISCHARGE ORIFICE
7
Fire Extinguisher
NUMERAL
Ratings RANGE
FIRE CLASS
A Trash Wood Paper
DIRECT INDEX OF THE SIZE 1-A thru 40-A

FIRE THE QUANTITY OF AGENT
CAN HANDLE
B Liquids Grease
INDICATION OF THE SQUARE
FOOT AREA OF FLAMMABLE
1-B thru 640-B
LIQUID THE EXTINGUISHER WILL
HANDLE
C Electrical Equipment
NO NUMERAL IS USED BECAUSE
THERE ARE NO DEGREES OF
SAFETY WHERE ELECTRICITY IS N/A
CONCERNED
COMBUSTIBLE
NOT APPLICABLE BECAUSE OF
THE SPECIALIZED NATURE OF
THE BURNING MATERIAL D N/A
METALS
DIRECT INDEX OF THE SIZE K Cooking Media

CAN HANDLE 1-A:C:K or 2-A:C:K
7
Fire Extinguisher Types
PRESSURIZED WATER
 Class “A” fires only.
A Trash Wood Paper

A Trash Wood Paper  2.5 gal. water at 150-175 psi (up to 1 minute
discharge time).
 Has pressure gauge to allow visual

B Liquids Grease
B Liquids Grease capacity check.
 30-40 ft. maximum effective range.
Can be started and stopped as necessary.

C Electrical Equipment 
 Extinguishes by cooling burning material

below the ignition point.
7
Fire Extinguisher Types (cont.)
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)
 Class “B” or “C” fires.
A Trash Wood Paper
A Trash Wood Paper  2.5-100 lb. of CO2 gas at 150-200
psi (8-30 seconds discharge time).
 Has NO pressure gauge--
B Liquids Grease
B Liquids Grease capacity verified by weight.
 Extinguishes by smothering
C Electrical Equipment burning materials.
 Effectiveness decreases as
temperature of burning material
increases.
8
MULTIPURPOSE DRY CHEMICAL
 Class “A”, “B”, or “C” fires.
A Trash Wood Paper
A Trash Wood Paper
 2.5-20 lb. dry chemical (ammonium

phosphate) pressurized to 50-200 psi by
B Liquids Grease
nitrogen gas (8-25 seconds discharge
time).
B Liquids Grease

capacity check.
 Extinguishes by smothering burning

materials.
8
HALON
 Class “A”, “B”, or “C” fires (smaller sizes
ineffective against Class “A”).
 9-17 lb. Halon 1211 (pressurized liquid)
A Trash Wood Paper
A Trash Wood Paper
released as vapor (8-18 seconds discharge
time).
capacity check.
B Liquids Grease
B Liquids Grease
 Works best in confined area--ideal for
electronics fire due to lack of residue.
 Extinguishes by smothering burning
materials.
 Fumes toxic if inhaled.

 Halon is ozone depleting chemical--
production halted in Jan ‘94.
8
Halogens
 Halogens (Greek hals, “salt”; genes, “born”), in chemistry, group of
five closely related chemically active elements—fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine, and astatine.
 The name halogen, or salt former, refers to the property of each of
the halogens to form with sodium a salt similar to common salt
(sodium chloride). Each member of the group has a valence of -1
and combines with metals to form halides, as well as with metals
and nonmetals to form complex ions.
 Iodine, symbol I, chemically reactive element, a blue-black solid at
room temperature. In group 17 (or VIIa) of the periodic table (see
Periodic Law), iodine is one of the halogens. Its atomic number is
53.
8
Halogens
 Astatine (Greek astatos, “unstable”), symbol At, radioactive element
that is the heaviest of the halogens. The atomic number of astatine is 85.
 Fluorine (Latin fluo, “flow”), symbol F, chemically reactive, poisonous
gaseous element. In group 17 of the periodic table fluorine is one of the
halogens. The atomic number of fluorine is 9. The element was first
isolated in 1886 by the French chemist Henri Moissan.
 Chlorine, symbol Cl, greenish-yellow gaseous element. The element’s
name comes from the Greek word chloros, which means “pale green.”
In group 17 (or VIIa) of the periodic table (see Periodic Law), chlorine is
one of the halogens. The atomic number of chlorine is 17.
 Bromine, symbol Br, poisonous element that at room temperature is a
dark, reddish-brown liquid. In group 17 (or VIIa) of the periodic table
(see Periodic Law), bromine is one of the halogens. The atomic number
of bromine is 35.
8
COMBUSTIBLE METAL
 Class “D” combustible metal fires only.
 30 lb. pressurized dry powder
optimized for specific combustible
metal (also available in bulk containers for
hand scooping onto fire to extinguish).
 To activate, must first open nitrogen
cylinder on back to pressurize body.
 Extinguishes by smotherin burning
materials.
COMBUSTIBLE
D
METALS 8
WET CHEMICAL
A Trash Wood Paper
 Class “A”, “C”, and “K” fires.
A Trash Wood Paper
 1.5 gal. of stored pressure PRX

wet chemical extinguishing
agent (40 sec. discharge time).
 10-12 ft. maximum effective
range.
K Cooking Media
 On Class “K” fires, don’t use
until after fixed extinguishing
K Cooking Media
system has activated.

 Extinguishes by cooling and
forming foam blanket to prevent
reignition.
8
Fire Extinguisher Summary
EXTINGUISHER TYPE WORKS BY EFFECTIVE AGAINST
PRESSURIZED COOLING
WATER
CARBON SMOTHERING
DIOXIDE
MULTIPURPOSE
DRY CHEMICAL SMOTHERING
HALON SMOTHERING
COMBUSTIBLE
SMOTHERING D
METAL
COOLING/
WET CHEMICAL
SMOTHERING
8
Fire Extinguisher Applications
FIRE CLASS EFFECTIVE EXTINGUISHER TYPES
A Trash Wood Paper
PRESSURIZED WATER, MULTIPURPOSE DRY

CHEMICAL, LARGER SIZE HALON, WET CHEMICAL
B Liquids Grease
MULTIPURPOSE DRY CHEMICAL, CARBON DIOXIDE,

HALON

HALON, WET CHEMICAL
COMBUSTIBLE
COMBUSTIBLE METAL
D
METALS
K Cooking Media
WET CHEMICAL
8
Fire Emergency Response
R Rescue
A Alarm
C Contain
E Extinguish
8
Firefighting Decision Criteria
 Know department emergency procedures and evacuation
routes.
 Know locations of extinguishers in your area and how to
use them.
 Always sound the alarm regardless of fire size.
 Avoid smoky conditions.
 Ensure area is evacuated.
 Don’t attempt to fight unless:
– Alarm is sounded.
– Fire is small and contained.
– You have safe egress route (can be reached without exposure
to fire).
– Available extinguishers are rated for size and type of fire.
 If in doubt, evacuate!
9
How to use fire extinguishers-video
 The Federal Emergency
Management Agency
(FEMA) is an agency of the
United States Department of
Homeland Security, initially
created by Presidential
Order on 1 April 1979.
 The primary purpose of
FEMA is to coordinate the
response to a disaster that
has occurred in the United
States and that overwhelms
the resources of local and
state authorities.
9
Fire Triangle
Fires Require
– Air
–Fuel
–Heat
9
Fire Triangle
Fuel Oxygen
Heat
9
Fire Triangle
Fuel Oxygen
Heat
=
9
The Fire Triangle
Three things must be present at the same time to
produce fire:
1. Enough OXYGEN to sustain combustion

2. Enough HEAT to reach ignition temperature
3. Some FUEL or combustible material
Together, they produce the CHEMICAL
REACTION that is fire
Take away any of these things and
the fire will be extinguished
9
Combustion
9
Combustion
 Combustion, process of
 The term combustion,
rapid oxidation or burning however, also embraces
of a substance with oxidation in the broad
simultaneous evolution of chemical sense, and the
heat and, usually, light. oxidizing agent may be
nitric acid, certain
 In the case of common fuels, perchlorates, or even
the process is one of
chemical combination with chlorine or fluorine.
atmospheric oxygen to
produce as the principal
products carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, and
water, together with
products such as sulfur
dioxide that may be
generated by the minor
constituents of the fuel.

9
Combustion or burning
 Combustion or burning is the sequence of exothermic chemical
reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the
production of heat and conversion of chemical species.
 The release of heat can result in the production of light in the
form of either glowing or a flame.
 Fuels of interest often include organic compounds
(especially hydrocarbons) in the gas, liquid or solid phase.
 In a complete combustion reaction, a compound reacts with an
oxidizing element, such as oxygen or fluorine, and the products
are compounds of each element in the fuel with the oxidizing
element. For example:
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O + energy
CH2S + 6 F2 → CF4 + 2 HF + SF6
9
Types of combustion: complete
and incomplete
 In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen, producing a
limited number of products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the
reaction will only yield carbon dioxide and water.
 When elements are burned, the products are primarily the most
common oxides.
 Carbon will yield carbon dioxide, nitrogen will yield nitrogen dioxide,
sulfur will yield sulfur dioxide, and iron will yield iron oxide.
 In most industrial applications and in fires, air is the source of oxygen
(O2). In air, each mole of oxygen is mixed with approximately 3.76 mole
of nitrogen. Nitrogen does not take part in combustion, but at high
temperatures, some nitrogen will be converted to NOx, usually between
1% and 0.002% (2 ppm). Furthermore, when there is any incomplete
combustion, some of carbon is converted tocarbon monoxide.
9
Complete combustion
 A more complete set of equations for

combustion of methane in air is therefore:
 CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

 2 CH4 + 3 O2 → 2 CO + 4 H2O
 N2 + O2 → 2 NO
 N2 + 2 O2 → 2 NO2
10
Incomplete combustion
 Incomplete combustion will only occur when there is not
enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react completely to produce
carbon dioxide and water.
 It also happens when the combustion is quenched by a heat
sink such as a solid surface or flame trap.
 For example, the incomplete combustion of propane is:
 The simple word equation for the combustion of a hydrocarbon

in oxygen is:
10
Chemistry of fire: oxidation
reactions
 Fire results from a rapid chemical reaction
between a fuel, such as wood or gasoline, and
oxygen.
 Reactions that involve oxygen and other
elements are called oxidation reactions.
 Chemists use the word combustion to refer to
the oxidation reaction that produces fire.
 Combustion generates light, heat, gases, and
soot.
10
Pyrolysis
 Pyrolysis is a thermochemical decomposition of organic
material at elevated temperatures in the absence of oxygen.
 Pyrolysis typically occurs under pressure and at operating
temperatures above 430 °C (800 °F).
 Pyrolysis is a special case of thermolysis, and is most commonly
used for organic materials, being, therefore, one of the processes
involved in charring.
 The pyrolysis of wood, which starts at 200–300 °C (390–
570 °F), occurs for example in fires or when vegetation comes
into contact with lava in volcanic eruptions.
 In general, pyrolysis of organic substances produces gas and
liquid products and leaves a solid residue richer in carbon
content.
 Extreme pyrolysis, which leaves mostly carbon as the residue, is
called carbonization.
10
10
10
Internal-Combustion Engine
 Internal-Combustion Engine, any type of
machine that obtains mechanical energy
directly from the expenditure of the chemical
energy of fuel burned in a combustion chamber
that is an integral part of the engine.
 Four principal types of internal-combustion
engines are in general use:
1. the Otto-cycle engine,
2. the diesel engine,
3. the rotary engine,
4. and the gas turbine.
10
How combustion occurs
 Several important factors need  Ignition sources may be in
to be present for combustion to the form of a spark, a flame,
occur. or even a very hot object.
 The first requirements are fuel  The ignition source must
and oxygen.
provide enough energy to
 Fuel for a fire may range from start the chemical reaction.
trees in a forest to furniture in a
home to gasoline in an  Finally, a chemical chain
automobile. reaction (reaction that
 The oxygen in the reaction continuously fuels itself)
usually comes from the must occur between the fuel
surrounding air. and oxygen for combustion
 The next requirement for to take place.
combustion is an initiating
energy source, or source of
ignition.
10
Stages of combustion
•Fuel and oxygen
chemically react, or
burn, to produce fire.
•Chemists call this kind
of reaction combustion.
• In a typical campfire,
wood serves as the fuel.
•Oxygen for the
reaction comes from the
surrounding air.
10
Stages of combustion-Fuel
10
Stages of combustion-vapors
11
Stages of combustion-Heat
source
11
Stages of combustion-Flame
11
Stages of combustion-Soot
11
Chemical chain reaction
 The final requirement for a fire is
a chemical chain reaction.
 The heat of the ignition source
starts the reaction, and heat from
the fire’s flame continues the
reaction.
 The flame needs to heat the fuel
and make it release enough
flammable gases to continuously
support the chemical reaction.
 A common example of
combustion is the burning of
wood.
 When an ignition source heats
wood to a sufficient temperature,
about 260°C (500°F), the cellulose
in the wood decomposes,
producing volatile gases and char.
11
Burning Rate
 Different kinds of fires burn at
 As the exposed surface of a fuel
different rates—one fire may slowly increases in comparison to its
smolder, while another may volume, the burning rate of the
quickly use up its fuel. fuel increases as well.
 The rate at which a fire burns  When the fuel’s gases have
depends on the composition of the more surface area from which
fuel, the surface area of the fuel, to escape, they can come into
and the amount of oxygen that is contact with more air.
available.
 The increased exposure to air
increases the amount of oxygen
 Most plastics burn at twice the rate available for combustion.
of cellulose fuels, such as wood and
leaves, because of the different
chemical reactions involved.
 The burning rate of the same fuel,
however, can also vary depending
on how much of the fuel’s surface is
exposed to the air.

11
Products of Combustion
 The products that a fire releases, and the rate
at which it releases them, depend on the fuel
and on the fire’s burning rate.
 Some fuels will produce more heat than
others as they burn, and some will produce
different kinds of gases.
 A fire that burns slowly may produce
different products than one that burns
quickly.
 The burning rate also affects the rate at which
a fire releases products.
11
11
Combustion process
11
Gases
 Fires can produce a number of different gases,
including some that are harmless and some that are
toxic.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O) are
two relatively harmless gases produced by fires.
 Toxic gases from fires include :
1. carbon monoxide (CO),
2. hydrogen cyanide (HCN),
3. sulfur dioxide (SO2), and
4. hydrogen chloride (HCl).
11
Light and Heat
 Once a material ignites, a  The flame continues to burn as
flame forms. the volatile gases streaming
from the fuel combine with
 The flame consists of volatile oxygen from the surrounding
gases moving upward, and air.
it is the region in which the  Different parts of the flame
combustion reaction occurs. have different temperatures.
 The gases in the flame move  Most common fuels are
upward because they are compounds called
hotter—and therefore lighter hydrocarbons, and they
—than the surrounding air. produce about the same flame
temperature, roughly 1200°C
 The colors in the flame (2200°F).
come from unburned carbon  The maximum theoretical flame
particles that glow and temperature for most
travel upward as the flame hydrocarbons is about 1300°C
heats them. (2400°F).
12
Definitions of Heat
 Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, in his 1871
classic Theory of Heat, was one of the first to enunciate a modern
definition of heat. Maxwell outlined four stipulations for the
definition of heat:
1. It is something which may be transferred from one body to another,
according to the second law of thermodynamics.
2. It is a measurable quantity, and thus treated mathematically.
3. It cannot be treated as a substance, because it may be transformed
into something that is not a substance, e.g., mechanical work.
4. Heat is one of the forms of energy.
12
Modern definitions
 Several modern definitions of heat are
as follows:
 The energy transferred from a high-temperature
system to a lower-temperature system is called heat.
 Any spontaneous flow of energy from one system to
another caused by a difference in temperature
between the systems is called heat
12
Gases formed by combustion
 Fires can produce a number of different gases,
including some that are harmless and some
that are toxic.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O)
are two relatively harmless gases produced by
fires.
 Toxic gases from fires include:
- carbon monoxide (CO),
-hydrogen cyanide (HCN),
-sulfur dioxide (SO2),
-and hydrogen chloride (HCl).
12
Smoke
 Smoke, dispersion of small
liquid or solid particles, usually
produced by a combustion
process.
 These particles are usually less
than one micrometer, or one-
millionth of a meter, in size, so
small as not to be individually
visible.
 Larger particles that can be
seen singly are generally called
dust; dust settles relatively
rapidly compared to smoke
particles.
 Smoke from furnaces and
industrial plants frequently
prompts community complaint
and control.
12
Smog
 Smog, mixture of solid and liquid
fog and smoke particles formed
when humidity is high and the air
so calm that smoke and fumes
accumulate near their source.
 Smog reduces natural visibility
and often irritates the eyes and
respiratory tract.
 In dense urban areas, the death
rate usually goes up considerably
during prolonged periods of
smog, particularly when a process
of heat inversion creates a smog-
trapping ceiling over a city.
 Smog occurs most often in and
near coastal cities and is an
especially severe problem in Los
Angeles and Tokyo.
12
Flame
 Flame, glowing body of mixed gases undergoing the process of
combustion.
 Flames generally consist of a mixture of oxygen (or air) and
another gas, usually such combustible substances as hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, or hydrocarbon.
 A typical flame is that of a burning candle.
 When the candle is lighted, the heat of the match melts the wax,
which is carried up the wick and then vaporized by the heat.
 The vaporized wax is then broken down by the heat and,
finally, combines with the oxygen of the surrounding air,
producing a flame and generating heat and light.
 The candle flame consists of three zones that are easily
distinguished.
12
Flame
 The innermost zone, a nonluminous cone, is composed of a gas-air
mixture at a comparatively low temperature.
 In the second, or luminous, cone, hydrogen and carbon monoxide are
produced by decomposition and begin to react with oxygen to form
water and carbon dioxide, respectively.
 In this cone the temperature of the flame—about 590° to 680° C (about
1090° to 1250° F)—is great enough to dissociate the gases in the flame
and produce free particles of carbon, which are heated to
incandescence and then consumed.
 The incandescent carbon produces the characteristic yellow light of
this portion of the flame.
 Outside the luminous cone is a third, invisible cone in which the
remaining carbon monoxide and hydrogen are finally consumed.
12
12
Candle
 Candle, illuminating device made  The earliest method of
of a fiber wick enclosed in a candlemaking was dipping the
cylinder of wax or fatty material. wick, usually made of flax or
 Beeswax candles were used by cotton fibers, into melted wax
the Romans, and tallow (animal or fat and removing it to let it
fat) candles have been made in cool and solidify in the air.
Europe since the Middle Ages.  The candle was built up to the
 In the 18th century, spermaceti, a required thickness by
wax obtained from the heads of successive dippings.
whales, was introduced for  Taper candles are still made by
candles. dipping, but most candles used
 Since the mid-19th century, today are molded, usually by
ordinary candles have been made machine.
from mixtures of paraffin wax,
stearic acid (a solid fatty acid),
and beeswax. Hydrogenated
vegetable oils and other waxes
are also used.
12
Typical temperatures of fires
and flames
Oxyhydrogen flame: 2000 °C or above (3600 °F)
Bunsen burner flame: 1,300 to 1,600 °C (2,400 to 2,900 °F)[
Blowtorch flame: 1,300 °C (2,400 °F)[
Candle flame: 1,000 °C (1,800 °F)
Smoldering cigarette:
Temperature without drawing: side of the lit
portion; 400 °C (750 °F); middle of the lit portion: 585
°C (1,100 °F)
Temperature during drawing: middle of the lit
portion: 700 °C (1,300 °F)
Always hotter in the middle.
13
Temperatures of flames by
appearance
 The temperature of flames with carbon
particles emitting light can be assessed
by their color:
 Red
A. Just visible: 525 °C (980 °F)
B. Dull: 700 °C (1,300 °F)
C. Cherry, dull: 800 °C (1,500 °F)
D. Cherry, full: 900 °C (1,700 °F)
E. Cherry, clear: 1,000 °C (1,800 °F)
13
Temperatures of flames by
appearance
 Orange
– Deep: 1,100 °C (2,000 °F)
– Clear: 1,200 °C (2,200 °F)
 White
– Whitish: 1,300 °C (2,400 °F)
– Bright: 1,400 °C (2,600 °F)
– Dazzling: 1,500 °C (2,700 °F)
13
Fire Tetrahedron
 The fire tetrahedron is an  The metals react faster with
addition to the fire triangle. water than with oxygen and
 It adds the requirement for the thereby more energy is released.
presence of the chemical  Putting water on such a fire
reaction which is the process of results in the fire getting hotter
fire. or even exploding because the
 For example, the suppression metals react with water in an
effect of Halon is due to its exothermic reaction.
interference in the fire chemical  Carbon dioxide extinguishers
inhibition. are ineffective against certain
 Combustion is the chemical metals such as titanium.
reaction that feeds a fire more  Therefore, inert agents (e.g. dry
heat and allows it to continue. sand) must be used to break the
 When the fire involves burning chain reaction of metallic
metals like lithium, magnesium, combustion. In the same way,
titanium, etc. (known as a class- as soon as we remove one out of
D fire), it becomes even more the 3 elements of the triangle,
important to consider the energy combustion stops.
release.
 The metals react faster with
water than with oxygen and
thereby more energy is released.
13
The Combustion Process
THE FIRE TETRAHEDRON
FUEL
AIN N
OX CH CTIO
YG A
E N RE
TEMPERATURE
13
FIRE SCIENCE
The Fire HEAT
Tetrahedron CHEMICAL
CHAIN
REACTION
FUEL
OXYGEN
13
FIRE SCIENCE
13
Piloted Ignition Spontaneous Ignition
Temperature Temperature
Fuel °C °F °C °F
Acetone -20 -4 465 869
Acrylic1 270 518
Ammonia2 651 1204
Asphalt 204 400 485 905
Corn oil 254 490 393 740
Ethanol 13 55 390 734
Ethyl alcohol 13 55 363 685
Gasoline -43 -45 280 536
Isopropyl alcohol 12 54 399 750
Methane2 537 999
Olive oil 225 437 343 650
Paraffin wax 199 390 245 473
Propane2 450 842
Sulfur 207 405 232 450
Wood 350 660 600 1110
1
Does not spontaneously ignite.

2
Gas that ignites with a spark or flame at any temperature.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2003. © 1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
13
Ignition
 Ignition, process or means  This temperature is
of igniting a combustible called the ignition
substance. temperature or ignition
 Ignition occurs when the point.
temperature of a substance
is raised to the point at
which its molecules will
react spontaneously with
oxygen, and the substance
begins to burn.
13
Piloted ignition
 A fire can start when a fuel  Engineers and scientists
becomes so hot that it usually use the term piloted
releases sufficient flammable ignition to refer to solid
gases for combustion to fuels.
occur.  Liquid fuels have, instead, a
 At this temperature, called flash point temperature. At a
the fuel’s piloted ignition liquid’s flash point, an
temperature, a spark or ignition source will cause a
flame will start the flame to flash across the
combustion reaction. surface of the liquid
 One source of piloted
ignition is an open flame,
such as that from a match or
lighter. Sparks, such as those
generated by electricity, may
also ignite a fire.
13
Spontaneous ignition
 The unpiloted ignition  Heat within the fuel
temperature of a fuel, also provides this energy. Some
fuels do not have a
called its spontaneous spontaneous ignition
ignition temperature, is the temperature because they
temperature the fuel must break down into other
reach to ignite on its own. substances before they can
ignite on their own.
 It is higher than the piloted  Flammable gases have just
ignition temperature, one ignition temperature.
because a flame or spark is They will ignite at this
not present to provide the temperature if they are
present in the right
extra heat needed to kick- concentrations.
start the chemical reaction
14
Preventing Fire
Remove Any Element of The Fire Triangle to Extinguish
or Prevent a Fire.
ie. Remove Fuel, or

Remove Oxygen, or
Remove Heat.
14
Remove Oxygen
Methods to Remove Oxygen
Smother with Fire Blanket,

Fire Fighting Foam,
Sand, Soil,
Closing Doors
Smother with CO2
14
Restrict the
Fuel Source
Turn Off the Fuel Source
at the Main Controls or Isolation valve.
14
Reduce the Heat
Reduce the Heat of the Substance Lower than its
Combustion Point
14
Air
 Air is required as a catalyst
 Can be oxygen from the air
 OR
 From the Fuel itself
14
Fuel
For a fire to start

there must be
something to Burn
14
Heat
For a Fire to Start,
there must be a heat
or ignition source
14
Types of Extinguishers
Type of fire
extinguishers are
classified by the
type fires on
which they may
be used
14
6 Types Of Extinguishers
14
Water Extinguishers
 Pump tank / stored pressure

 Reduces temperature
15
Foam extinguisher
 Use on class A&B fires

 Smothering and cooling
15
Halon
 B&C Fires
 Interrupts chemical chain reaction
15
Carbon Dioxide
 Gas stored under pressure

 B&C fires
 Displaces oxygen
15
Dry chemical
 Multi-purpose A,B,C, fires
15
Dry powder
 Combustible metals
 Titanium
 Magnesium
15
Labeling of fire extinguishers
B C D
A SQUARE
CIRCLE STAR
TRIANGLE
15
United States classification
Fire Geometric Pictogram Intended Use
Class Symbol
Garbage can and wood pile Ordinary solid
A Green Triangle
burning combustibles
Fuel container and burning Flammable liquids and

B Red Square
puddle gases
Electric plug and burning Energized electrical

C Blue Circle
outlet equipment
Yellow Decagon
D Burning Gear and Bearing Combustible metals
(Star)
K Black Hexagon Pan burning Cooking oils and fats
15
Types of Fire Extinguishers
Different types of fire extinguishers are designed to fight
different classes of fire.
The 3 most common types of fire extinguishers are:
1. Water (APW)
2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
3. Dry Chemical (ABC, BC, DC)
15
Class A
Used on
Wood, Paper,
Plastic
Class A
Fires
15
Class B
Used on
Flammable
Liquid Fires
16
Class C
Used on
Electrical
Fires
16
Class D
Used on
Metal
Fires
16
Using A Fire Extinguisher
Use the
PASS
System
16
PASS 

P = PULL PIN
A = AIM NOZZLE
 Pull  S = SQUEEZE
 Aim HANDLE
 S = SWEEP AT
 Squeeze BASE OF FIRE
 Sweep
16
Pull
Pull the Pin
This will allow
you to
discharge the
extinguisher.
16
Aim
Aim at the base of
the fire.
If you aim at the
flames, the
extinguishing agent
will fly right through
and do no good. You
want to hit the fuel.
16
Squeeze
 Squeezethe top
handle or lever.
This depresses a
button that releases
the pressurized
extinguishing
agent in the
extinguisher
16
Sweep
Sweep from
side to side
until the fire is
completely out.
16
Methods of application
16
Rules for Fires
– Fires are very
dangerous
– Be certain that you will not
endanger yourself or others when
attempting to put out a fire.
17
Fire Rules
– Pull the Fire Alarm

– Call Rescue 11
– Assist anyone danger
17
Fire Rules
Never Fight a Fire if you don't
know what is burning
Ifyou don't know what is burning, you don't
know what type of extinguisher to use.
Even if you have an ABC extinguisher, there
may be something in the fire which is going to
explode or produce highly toxic smoke.
17
Fire Rules
Never Fight a Fire if the fire is
spreading rapidly beyond the spot
where it started
The time to use an extinguisher is in the incipient, or
beginning, stages of a fire. If the fire is already
spreading quickly, it is best to simply evacuate the
building, closing doors and windows behind you as
you leave.
17
Fire Rules
Never Fight a fire if you don't
have adequate or appropriate
equipment
If you don't have the correct type or large

enough extinguisher, it is best not to try to
fight the fire.
17
Fire Rules
Never fight a fire if you
might inhale toxic smoke
Ifthe fire is producing large amounts of smoke that

you would have to breathe in order to fight it, it is
best not to try.
Gases from man made materials can be fatal in very
small amounts.
17
Fire Rules
Never fight a fire if your
instincts tell you not to.
If you are uncomfortable with the situation for

any reason, just let the fire department do their
job.
17
The
Fire Rules
final rule is to always position
yourself with an exit or means of escape
at your back before you attempt to use an
extinguisher to put out a fire.
In case the extinguisher malfunctions, or something
unexpected happens, you need to be able to get out quickly, and
you don't want to become trapped. Just remember, always keep
an exit at your back.
17
Portable Fire
Extinguishers
DRY
WATER FOAM CARBON
DIOXIDE CHEMICAL
POWDER
ELECTRICALLY
NON CONDUCTIVE
CONDUCTIVE
17
FIRE
FIRE EXTINGUISHER
EXTINGUISHER
MOUNTING.
MOUNTING.
Fire extinguisher
symbolic sign
Fire extinguisher Activation lever
(complete with safety
information disk
pin)
Pressure Gauge Service Maintenance
Discharge label
Nozzle Operating
E E P instructions
K R
E A
Mounting surface CL
Cylinder
Floor area below
equipment
17
Fire Extinguishers
Dry Chemical Carbon Dioxide
Carbonaceous Material Carbonaceous Material
Volatile Liquids Volatile Liquids
Electrical Electrical
9kg, 17-20 Sec's. 5kg, 14-20 Sec's.
3-6 m 1-2 m
Water Foam
Carbonaceous Material Carbonaceous Materials
9.1 Lt. 60-120 Sec's. Volatile Liquids
6-9 m 9.1 Lt. 60-80 Sec's.
4-6 m
18
Powder based agent that extinguishes by separating
the four parts of the fire tetrahedron
 Monoammonium phosphate,
 Sodium bicarbonate
 Potassium bicarbonate
 Potassium bicarbonate & Urea Complex
 Potassium Chloride
 Foam-Compatible
 MET-L-KYL / PYROKYL
18
Monoammonium phosphate
 Monoammonium phosphate, also known
as "tri-class", "multipurpose" or "ABC" dry
chemical, used on class A, B, and C fires.
 It receives its class A rating from the
agent's ability to melt and flow at 177 °C
(350 °F) to smother the fire.
 More corrosive than other dry chemical
agents. Pale yellow in color
18
Sodium bicarbonate
 Sodium bicarbonate, "regular" or "ordinary"
used on class B and C fires, was the first of the
dry chemical agents developed.
 It interrupts the fire's chemical reaction, and
was very common in commercial kitchens
before the advent of wet chemical agents, but
now is falling out of favor, as it is much less
effective than wet chemical agents for class K
fires, less effective than Purple-K for class B
fires, and is ineffective on class A fires.
 White or blue in color
18
Potassium bicarbonate
 Potassium bicarbonate (aka Purple-K),
used on class B and C fires.
 About two times as effective on class B
fires as sodium bicarbonate, it is the
preferred dry chemical agent of the oil
and gas industry.
 The only dry chemical agent certified for
use in ARFF by the NFPA.
 Violet in color.
18
Potassium bicarbonate & Urea
Complex
 Potassium bicarbonate & Urea
Complex (aka Monnex/Powerex), used on
Class B and C fires.
 More effective than all other powders due
to its ability to decrepitate (where the
powder breaks up into smaller particles)
in the flame zone creating a larger surface
area for free radical inhibition.
18
Potassium Chloride
 Potassium Chloride, or Super-K dry
chemical was developed in an effort to
create a high efficiency, protein-foam
compatible dry chemical.
 Developed in the 60s, prior to Purple-K,
it was never as popular as other agents
since being a salt, it was quite corrosive.
 For B and C fires, white in color.
18
Foam-Compatible
 Foam-Compatible, which is a sodium bicarbonate (BC)
based dry chemical, was developed for use with
protein foams for fighting class B fires.
 Most dry chemicals contain metal stearates to
waterproof them, but these will tend to destroy the
foam blanket created by protein (animal) based foams.
 Foam compatible type uses silicone as a waterproofing
agent, which does not harm foam.
 Effectiveness is identical to regular dry chemical, and it
is light green in color.
 This agent is generally no longer used since most
modern dry chemicals are considered compatible with
synthetic foams such as AFFF
18
MET-L-KYL / PYROKYL
 MET-L-KYL / PYROKYL is a specialty
variation of sodium bicarbonate for fighting
pyrophoric liquid fires (ignite on contact with
air).
 In addition to sodium bicarbonate, it also
contains silica gel particles.
 The sodium bicarbonate interrupts the chain
reaction of the fuel and the silica soaks up any
unburned fuel, preventing contact with air.
 It is effective on other class B fuels as well.
Blue/Red in color
18
Foams
 Applied to fuel fires as either an
aspirated (mixed & expanded with air
in a branch pipe) or non aspirated form
to form a frothy blanket or seal over
the fuel, preventing oxygen reaching it.
 Unlike powder, foam can be used to
progressively extinguish fires without
flashback.
18
Aqueous film forming foam
 AFFF (aqueous film forming foam), used
on A and B fires and for vapor
suppression.
 The most common type in portable foam
extinguishers.
 It contains fluoro tensides which can be
accumulated in human body.
 The long-term effects of this on the
human body and environment are
unclear at this time.
19
Alcohol-resistant aqueous film
forming foams
 AR-AFFF (Alcohol-resistant aqueous
film forming foams), used on fuel fires
containing alcohol.
 Forms a membrane between the fuel and
the foam preventing the alcohol from
breaking down the foam blanket.
19
Film forming fluoroprotein
 FFFP (film forming fluoroprotein)

contains naturally occurring proteins
from animal by-products and synthetic
film-forming agents to create a foam
blanket that is more heat resistant than
the strictly synthetic AFFF foams.
 FFFP works well on alcohol-based
liquids and is used widely in motorsports
19
Compressed air foam system
 CAFS (compressed air foam system) Any

APW style extinguisher that is charged
with a foam solution and pressurized
with compressed air.
 Generally used to extend a water supply
in wildland operations.
 Used on class A fires and with very dry
foam on class B for vapor suppression
19
Fire Fighting
Foam Principles and
Ethanol-Blended Fuel
19
Basic Foam Principles
 What is foam?
– “…an aggregate of air-filled bubbles formed from
aqueous solutions which is lower in density than
flammable liquids.
– It is used principally to form a cohesive floating blanket
on flammable and combustible liquids, and prevents or
extinguishes fire by excluding air and cooling the fuel.
– It also prevents reignition by suppressing formation of
flammable vapors.
– It has the property of adhering to surfaces, which
provides a degree of exposure protection from adjacent
fires” (NFPA 11).
19
 Why use foam?

– Only agent capable of suppressing vapors
& providing visible proof of security
– Foam blanket on unignited spill can
prevent fire
– Suppression of vapors prevents them from
finding ignition source
19
 Why use foam?

– Can provide post-fire security by
protecting hazard until it can be
secured / removed
– Can provide protection from flammable
liquids for fire & rescue personnel during
emergency operations
19
 How foam works:

– Foam can:
» Exclude oxygen from fuel vapors
» Cool fuel surface with water content of foam
» Prevent release of flammable vapors from fuel
surface
» Emulsify fuel
19
 How foam works:

– Foam tetrahedron:
» Before being used
must be proportioned
& aerated
» 4 elements:
 Foam concentrate
 Water
 Air Copyright 2007, TEEX/ESTI
 Aeration
19
 What is foam not effective on?

– Foam is not effective on Class C electrical
fires:
» Foam contains 94–97% water & water conducts
electricity
» Class C fires can be extinguished using
nonconductive extinguishing agents
20

– Foam is not effective on 3-dimensional
fires:
» Recommended to first control spill fire
» Extinguish flowing fire using dry chemical
agent
20

– Foam is not effective on pressurized gases:
» Vapor pressure too high for foam to be
effective
» Examples:
 Propane
 Butane
 Vinyl chloride
 Butadiene
20

– Foam is not effective on combustible
metals:
» Combustible metals usually react with water
» Fires involving combustible metals require
specialized techniques & extinguishing agents
20
 What is foam effective on?

– Effective at suppressing vapors &
extinguishing Class B fires
– 2 categories of Class B products:
» Hydrocarbons
» Polar solvents
– Hydrocarbons
– Polar solvents
20
 Foam terminology:
– Foam concentrate
– Foam solution
– Finished foam
20
 Types of foam:
– Protein foam
– Fluoroprotein foams
– AFFF
– FFFP
– AR foam
20
 Foam characteristics:
– Knockdown
– Heat resistance
– Fuel tolerance
– Vapor suppression
– Alcohol tolerance
20
Foam Characteristics
Property Protein Fluoroprotein AFFF FFFP AR-AFFF
Knockdown Fair Good Excellent Good Excellent
Heat
Excellent Excellent Fair Good Good
Resistance
Fuel
Fair Excellent Moderate Good Good
Tolerance
Vapor
Excellent Excellent Good Good Good
Suppression
Alcohol
None None None None Excellent
Tolerance
Source: National Foam
20
 Foam proportioning &
delivery systems:
» Concentration levels:
 Hydrocarbons: 3%
 Polar solvents: 6%
» Foam proportioning Property of Chauncey Naylor, reprinted with
permission
systems:
 Eductors:
– In-line
eductors:
Advantages
Property of Chauncey Naylor, reprinted with

permission
20
 Foam proportioning
& delivery systems:
– Foam proportioning
systems:
» Eductors:
Property of Chauncey Naylor, reprinted with
 Bypass eductors permission
 Common eductor
failures
Copyright 2007, TEEX/ESTI
21
 Foam proportioning & delivery systems:
– Foam proportioning systems:
» Foam nozzles:
 Foam proportioning nozzles:
– Advantages
21
 Foam proportioning
& delivery systems:
– Foam proportioning
systems:
» Air aspirating
nozzles
» Non-air aspirating
nozzles
21
 Application techniques:
– Never plunge foam directly into the fuel
– Bounce-off:
» Effective if there is an object in / behind spill
area
– Bank-in:
» Particularly effective with non-air aspirating
fog nozzles
21
 Application techniques:
– Rain-down:
» Nozzle elevated & foam allowed to fall over
spill as gently as possible
21
Foam and Ethanol and
Ethanol-Fuel Blends
 Foams not developed for application on

alcohol- / ethanol-blended fuels:
– Ineffective on fuels containing alcohols /
ethanol:
» Alcohol / Ethanol attacks & absorbs foam
solution
21
Ethanol-Fuel Blends
 AR foams:
– Forms tough membrane between foam
blanket & alcohol-type fuel
– Crucial to use in combating
ethanol-blended fuel fires
– Apply gently to surface of alcohol- /
ethanol-blended fuels
21
Ethanol-Fuel Blends
 AR foams:
– Use Type II application techniques:
» Apply indirectly to fire
– Type III application:
» Effective only when deflected off surfaces
» Best option may be to protect surrounding
exposures
21
Ethanol-Fuel Blends
 Require higher flow rate of foam to

extinguish fires:
– AFFF-type: 1 gpm foam / 10 ft2 burning
surface on hydrocarbon-type fuel
– Ethanol-blended fuels: 2 gpm foam / 10 ft2
of AR type foam
21
Foam Recommendations for
Fire Departments
 Consider converting to AR foam

concentrates
 Develop means of having cache of AR
foam readily available
21
Fire Departments
 AR foams effective on both alcohol &

hydrocarbon fires:
– Some have quicker knockdown abilities &
longer foam retention times than protein-
based hydrocarbon foams
– Thermal imaging camera recommended
22
Fire Departments
Copyright ERG
22
Fire Departments
 AR foams effective on both alcohol &

hydrocarbon fires:
– Uncertain if fire is
alcohol- / ethanol-blended:
» Consider doubling application rate
– Foam of choice
22
Summary
 AR foam best choice for incidents
 AR foam recommended choice for all
fuel fires involving gasoline- / ethanol-
blended fuels
 AR foam performs on hydrocarbon fires
as well:
– Preferred choice from response standpoint
if nature of burning fuel is unclear
22
Arctic Fire
 Arctic Fire is a liquid fire extinguishing

agent that emulsifies and cools heated
materials more quickly than water or
ordinary foam.
 It is used extensively in the steel
industry.
 Effective on classes A, B, and
22
FireAde
 FireAde, a foaming agent that emulsifies
burning liquids and renders them non-
flammable.
 It is able to cool heated material and surfaces
similar to CAFS.
 Used on A and B (said to be effective on some
class D hazards, although not recommended
due to the fact that fireade still contains
amounts of water which will react with some
metal fires)
22
Air pressurized water
 APW (Air pressurized water) cools burning
material by absorbing heat from burning
material.
 Effective on Class A fires, it has the advantage of
being inexpensive, harmless, and relatively easy
to clean up.
 In the United States, APW units contain 2.5
gallons (9 litres) of water in a tall, stainless steel
cylinder.
 In Europe, they are typically mild steel lined
with polyethylene, painted red, containing 6–9
litres (1.75–2.5 gallons) of water.
22
Water Mist
 Water Mist uses a fine misting nozzle to
break up a stream of deionized water to the
point of not conducting electricity back to the
operator.
 Class A and C rated. It is used widely in
hospitals for the reason that, unlike other
clean-agent suppressants, it is harmless and
non-contaminant.
 These extinguishers come in 1.75 and 2.5
gallon units, painted white in the United
States and red in Europe.
22
Wet chemical and water
additives
 Wet Chemical (potassium  Wetting Agents Detergent
acetate, carbonate, or citrate) based additives used to
extinguishes the fire by break the surface tension of
forming a soapy foam water and improve
blanket over the burning oil penetration of Class A fires.
and by cooling the oil below  Antifreeze Chemicals added
its ignition temperature. to water to lower its freezing
 Generally class A and K (F point to about −40 °F. Has
in Europe) only, although no appreciable effect on
newer models are outfitted extinguishing performance.
with misting nozzles as
those used on water mist
units to give these
extinguishers class B and C
firefighting capability.
22
 FFFP (film forming
Foams fluoroprotein) contains
naturally occurring proteins
from animal by-products
and synthetic film-forming
agents to create a foam
 AFFF (aqueous film blanket that is more heat
forming foam), used on resistant than the strictly
A and B fires and for synthetic AFFF foams.
vapor suppression.  CAFS (compressed air foam
system) Any APW style
 AR-AFFF (Alcohol- extinguisher that is charged
resistant aqueous film with a foam solution and
forming foams), used on pressurized with
fuel fires containing compressed air. Generally
alcohol. Forms a used to extend a water
membrane between the supply in wildland
operations. Used on class A
fuel and the foam fires and with very dry foam
preventing the alcohol on class B for vapor
from breaking down the suppression
foam blanket.
22
Foams
 Arctic Fire is a liquid fire extinguishing agent that emulsifies
and cools heated materials more quickly than water or ordinary
foam.
- It is used extensively in the steel industry.
-Effective on classes A, B, and D.
 FireAde, a foaming agent that emulsifies burning liquids and
renders them non-flammable.
-It is able to cool heated material and surfaces similar to CAFS.
-Used on A and B (said to be effective on some class D hazards,
although not recommended due to the fact that fireade still
contains amounts of water which will react with some metal
fires).
23
Mobile Extinguishers
Capacity 45kg -70kg

Duration 35sec -55 sec
Range 8-10m
23
Fire Extinguisher Operation
The acronym “PASS” is sometimes used to
describe the use of extinguishers. It stands
for:
 P- Pull the pin.
 A- Aim the nozzle at the base of the fire.
 S- Squeeze the operating handle.
 S- Sweep the discharging contents across
the base of the fire.
23
23
Used Fire
Extinguishers
E F
23
Fire Emergency Response
R Rescue
A Alarm
C Contain
E Extinguish
23
 Firefighting Decision Criteria
Know department emergency procedures and
evacuation routes.
 Know locations of extinguishers in your area and
how to use them.
– You have safe egress route (can be reached without
exposure to fire).
23
Fighting the Fire
P Pull the pin
Aim low at the

A base of flames
Squeeze the
S handle
S Sweep side to side

23
Firefighter
Safety
SAFETY
23
Why Have a Safety Program ?
1 of every 12
firefighters will be
injured in the line
of duty this year
23
Since 1988, an average of
100 firefighters per year
were killed in the line of
duty
24
Worcester, Massachusetts
24
Emmitsburgh,
Maryland 24
24
Fatalities by Type of
Duty
24
Type of Emergency Duty
24
Laws & Regulations
– COMM 30
» FD Safety & Health
– COMM 32
» Public Employee Safety & Health
24
Laws & Regulations
Written as recommendations, many

NFPA Standards are adopted
through reference in COMM 30
NFPA 1001 – FF Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1002 – Driver / Operator Qualifications
NFPA 1403 – Live Fire Training
NFPA 1901 – Pumper Fire Apparatus
NFPA 1981 – SCBA
NFPA 1983 – Life Safety Rope, Harnesses, and Hardware
24
Laws & Regulations
Although Wisconsin is not an OSHA State,
many OSHA Standards are adopted
through reference in COMM 32
Part 1904 – Recording & Reporting Occupational Injuries and Illnesses
Part 1910 – Occupational Safety & Health
Bloodborne Pathogens
Hazardous Materials
Respiratory Protection
Confined Space Entry
Lockout / Tagout
24
Laws & Regulations
Many other documents are recognized as industry
“standards”, but unless adopted by reference in
COMM 30 & 32, they are not “legally enforceable”
and merely serve as recommendations.
24
Laws & Regulations
Although FF’s in WI are waived from having
Commercial Driver License (CDL) Certification,
they DO have to abide by the CDL requirements
of State
This statute clearly Statute
stipulates 346.63.
that no
person may operate or be on-duty . . .
• while having a blood-alcohol
concentration above 0.0,
• within 4 hours of having consumed or OTIS
having been under the influence of an
intoxicating beverage, or
• while possessing an intoxicating
beverage, regardless of it’s alcohol
content.
25
Fire Department Safety Officer
Safety
Assists the Fire Chief in the
ultimate responsibility
for the safety and health
of the fire fighter.
Officer
25
 Qualifications
– FD member Safety
– Knowledge of state / local
laws (COMM 30 - 32)
– Knowledge of potential
hazards related to
Officer
firefighting
– Knowledge of principles /
techniques of managing a
safety & health program
25
 Duties
– Safety & Health Safety
Committee
– Safety in workplace
– Safety in training
– Incident safety Officer
– Records management
– Policy and procedure
development
25
Fireground Safety Officer (Sector)
 Sector Officer
– Time Keeping (SCBA)
– Accountability (PAR)
– Building Survey (Size-Up)
– Operations
– Accident/Injury Investigation
25
Firefighter Safety
 Safety Committee
– Representatives of FD
» Management
» Labor
» Others
– Responsibilities
» Research & Development
» Make recommendations
» Hold bi-annual meetings
25
Firefighter Safety
 Training
– Establish a program to prevent occupational
accidents, deaths & injuries.
– Qualified Instructors – anyone who is
knowledgeable in the topic, not necessarily a
“certified” instructor.
– Training must match duties and include training in
the Incident Management System (IMS)
25
Firefighter Safety
 Training
– Monthly training in structural firefighting (or
related topics – SCBA, ladders, etc.)
– Live fire training must follow NFPA 1403
– FF’s must be trained in procedures to effect his or
her safe exit from a dangerous area if equipment
fails or fire conditions change suddenly
Backdraft – flashover – safety & survival
bldg. construction -RIT
25
Firefighter Safety
The solution is
early, high
ventilation
25
Firefighter Safety
25
Firefighter Safety
FLASHOVE
R
26
Firefighter Safety
26
Firefighter Safety
26
Firefighter Safety
1½ times the height of the building
26
Firefighter Safety
 Permanent Records
– Job related accidents & illnesses
– Confidential health records
26
Firefighter Safety
 Member Exposures
– Toxic products (Carcinogens)
– Infectious diseases (HIV)
 Vehicles & Equipment

– Maintenance
– Repairs
– Service
» Documented
26
Firefighter Safety
 Apparatus
– Drivers / Operators
» Trained & Certified (NFPA 1002)

» Valid DL
 Driver is responsible for the safe and prudent
operation of the vehicle in all conditions.
 Any Officer directly supervising the driver is
responsible for the actions of the driver.
26
Firefighter Safety
 Apparatus Inspections
– Weekly - minimum
– Within 24 hrs after use or repair
– Annual testing & certification
» Fire Pumps
» Aerials
» Portable equipment, ladders, hose
26
Firefighter Safety
 Personal Protective Equipment
– Coat / Bunker Pants
– Helmet / Gloves / Boots / Hood
– SCBA
– PASS Device
– Hearing & Eye Protection
– Must meet NFPA standards at time of Must be
manufacture provided by
the
– Must be maintained according to municipalit
manufacturer’s recommendations y at no cost
to the
employee
26
Firefighter Safety
COMMAND OPERATIONS
Emergency Operations
– Incident Management System (IMS)
» Written guidelines
» Identify roles / responsibilities of personnel
» Safety of Operations
 IMS Training
 Assign safety responsibilities to supervisory
personnel
 The IC is ULTIMATELY RESPONSIBLE
SAFETY PIO
26
Firefighter Safety
 Incident Safety Requirements

– Need for sufficient personnel /
limited operations
– Inexperienced FF’s must be assigned
w/ experienced ones
– Must wear retro-reflective garment
and protective headwear if in
potential contact with traffic
27
Firefighter Safety
Procedures for Interior Structural Firefighting
 Firefighters shall operate in teams of two or more and
remain in communication with each other through
visual, audible, physical, safety guide rope, electronic
or other means to coordinate their activities, and
 In close enough proximity to each other to be able to
provide assistance in case of an emergency.
“Two-
in”
27
Firefighter Safety
 Except in the case of a structural fire which is in the
initial or beginning stage and which can be controlled
or extinguished by portable fire extinguishers, a back-
up team of at least two members shall be available at
the scene for rescue if the need arises.
“Two-out”
27
Firefighter Safety
 In ALL structural fires in which
firefighters use SCBA, at least one
additional member shall be assigned to
remain outside the structural fire and
monitor the operations. (Incident
Commander)
– It is not the intent of this rule to prevent any
number of persons from responding to a fire
call, setting up equipment and initiating
exterior fire suppression at the fire scene.
– Also, it is not the intent of this rule to
+ prohibit an individual firefighter from
one taking an action to preserve the life or safety
of another person.
27
Firefighter Safety
“Two-
out”
+
one “Two-in”
COMM
30 27
Firefighter Safety
At emergency operations, the IC shall

evaluate the risk to FF’s and, if necessary,
request at least BLS personnel and pt.
transportation be available.
27
Facility Safety
Must meet the requirements of COMM 32
27
Firefighter Safety
 Scene Re-Hab
– Reduces Stress
– Provides Rest
» reduces heat stress
» reduces fatigue
» provides warming
– Fluid replacement
– Food
– Medical Monitoring
27
Firefighter Safety
 Scene Re-Hab
– Recommendations
» After 2 SCBA bottles
» After 45 minutes of strenuous work
» When members are obviously fatigued, faint,
injured or emotionally drained
– Re-Hab Locations
» Nearby Scene
 outside hazard area - no exhaust fumes
 EMS units / Red Cross / Salvation Army
– tent, garage, bus, squad
27
Firefighter Safety
 On Scene
– Electrical
– Traffic
– Building Construction
– Haz-Mat
– Tools & Equipment
27
Special Hazards
 Electrical systems & equipment

– sources
» power lines, fuses, breaker panels, building
wiring, appliances
– precautions
» assume they are energized
» notify WEPCO
» do not use straight or solid hose streams
» use caution when raising ladders
28
Firefighter Safety
 Medical
– Physical Exams
» Prior to employment
» Scheduled
– Fitness Program
» Job task evaluations
 Combat Challenge
 SCBA Fitness Evaluation
– annual
28
Firefighter Safety
 Member Assistance Program (MAP)

– Counseling for . . .
» Alcohol / substance abuse
» Stress / personal problems
– Health promotion activities
» Smoking cessation
» Healthy living
» Enhancing overall wellness
28
Summary
 Combustion process (Fire Tetrahedron).
 Class A, B, C, D, K fires.
 Types of portable fire extinguishers:
– Operating procedures.
– Capabilities and limitations.
 Basic firefighting concepts:
– R.A.C.E.
– P.A.S.S.
28
First Aid Measures
 Eye contact: wash with water for 15

minutes.
 Skin contact: Wash area with soap and
water.
 Inhalation: Remove from exposure.
 Ingestion: Give large amounts of water
and induce vomiting.
28
Fire Prevention, Removing the Potential
for Fire Occurrences. An Ounce of
Prevention Is Worth a Pound of Cure.
 Good Housekeeping is a  Wash off any
must. Check for and accumulated hydraulic
remove all rags, paper, or
combustible products oil, fuels, or grease, if
from engine, or power hydraulic hose fails in
train compartments daily. the area, wash off area
 Keeping machine in good before beginning, don’t
operating conditions; burn it off with radiate
inspect unit for leaks, heat from engines, this
drips, chaffed hoses in can cause a fire.
areas where heat can be
generated.
28
Conclusion
28
THE FIRE TETRAHEDRON
FUEL
AIN N
OX CH CTIO
YG A
E N RE
TEMPERATURE
28
Fire Classes
A Trash Wood Paper C Electrical Equipment
 wood
 cloth • energized
 paper electrical
 rubber equipment
 many plastics
• gasoline COMBUSTIBLE • magnesium

B Liquids Grease
• oil • sodium
• grease • potassium
• tar • titanium
•
•
oil-based
paint
lacquer
D •
•
zirconium
other
flammable
• flammable METALS metals
gases
28
Fire Classes (cont.)
CLASS K FIRES
K Cooking Media
• Recently recognized by NFPA 10.
• Fires involving combustible

vegetable or animal non-
saturated cooking fats in
commercial cooking equipment.
28
Fire Extinguisher
NUMERAL
Ratings RANGE
FIRE CLASS
A Trash Wood Paper
DIRECT INDEX OF THE SIZE 1-A thru 40-A

CAN HANDLE
B Liquids Grease
INDICATION OF THE SQUARE
FOOT AREA OF FLAMMABLE
1-B thru 640-B
LIQUID THE EXTINGUISHER WILL
HANDLE
NO NUMERAL IS USED BECAUSE
THERE ARE NO DEGREES OF
SAFETY WHERE ELECTRICITY IS N/A
CONCERNED
COMBUSTIBLE
NOT APPLICABLE BECAUSE OF
THE SPECIALIZED NATURE OF
THE BURNING MATERIAL D N/A
METALS
K Cooking Media
DIRECT INDEX OF THE SIZE

FIRE THE QUANTITY OF AGENT 1-A:C:K or 2-A:C:K
CAN HANDLE
29
Fire Extinguisher
FIRE CLASS
Applications
EFFECTIVE EXTINGUISHER TYPES
A Trash Wood Paper
PRESSURIZED WATER, MULTIPURPOSE DRY

CHEMICAL, LARGER SIZE HALON, WET CHEMICAL
B Liquids Grease

HALON

HALON, WET CHEMICAL
COMBUSTIBLE
COMBUSTIBLE METAL
D
METALS
K Cooking Media
WET CHEMICAL
29
Conclusion
29
Fire Extinguisher
EXTINGUISHER TYPE WORKSSummary
BY EFFECTIVE AGAINST
PRESSURIZED COOLING
WATER
CARBON SMOTHERING
DIOXIDE
MULTIPURPOSE
DRY CHEMICAL SMOTHERING
HALON SMOTHERING
COMBUSTIBLE
SMOTHERING D
METAL
COOLING/
WET CHEMICAL
SMOTHERING
29
29
Conclusion
 Combustion process (Fire Tetrahedron).
 Fire Triangle
 Class A, B, C, D, K fires.
 Types of portable fire extinguishers:
– Operating procedures.
– Capabilities and limitations.
 Basic firefighting concepts:
– R.A.C.E.
– P.A.S.S.
29
Firefighting Decision Criteria
 Know department emergency procedures and evacuation
routes.
 Know locations of extinguishers in your area and how to
use them.
– You have safe egress route (can be reached without exposure
to fire).
29
Thank You For Your
Time and interest
29

Fire Extinguishers

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Fire Extinguishers

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Fire Extinguishers

What you will learn…

 a destructive fire, usually an extensive one

mixture of three elements: a source

Class A Class A Class A Ordinary combustibles

Class B Class B Flammable liquids

Class C UNCLASSIFIED Class E Electrical equipment

Class D Class D Class D Combustible metals

Class K Class F Class F Cooking oil or fat

 High-rise building: Any building taller than three or four

 Nozzle reaction: The force felt when water is pumped through a

 Yield: What other drivers are supposed

 AFA: Automatic Fire Alarm/Actuating Fire Alarm

Flame Retardant Neck

Fold Down Eye

Face shields will only provide limited eye

 Class A fires involve organic solids such as paper and

DISCHARGE LOCKING PIN CARRYING

DISCHARGE NOZZLE BODY

Water Solid red Solid red A

Red with a Red with a

Red with a Red with a

Vaporising liquid (non- Not yet in Red with a

Solid Red with an

Garbage can and wood Ordinary solid

Fuel container and Flammable liquids

Electric plug and burning Energized electrical

Yellow Decagon Burning Gear and

K Black Hexagon Pan burning Cooking oils and fats

Red with a cream panel above the

French Red with a blue panel above the

Carbon Red with a black panel above the

Wet Not yet Red with a canary yellow panel above

Class D French Red with a blue panel above the

Dry Chemical (ABC)

ASSIST any persons in immediate danger, or those incapable on their own, to

The 4 Types are

 Class A fire = Ordinary combustibles

• gasoline COMBUSTIBLE • magnesium

• Fires involving combustible

DISCHARGE LOCKING PIN CARRYING

DISCHARGE NOZZLE BODY

DIRECT INDEX OF THE SIZE 1-A thru 40-A

DIRECT INDEX OF THE SIZE K Cooking Media

A Trash Wood Paper

 Has pressure gauge to allow visual

 30-40 ft. maximum effective range.

Can be started and stopped as necessary.

 Extinguishes by cooling burning material

 2.5-20 lb. dry chemical (ammonium

 Has pressure gauge to allow visual

 5-20 ft. maximum effective range.

 Extinguishes by smothering burning

 Fumes toxic if inhaled.

 1.5 gal. of stored pressure PRX

system has activated.

PRESSURIZED WATER, MULTIPURPOSE DRY

MULTIPURPOSE DRY CHEMICAL, CARBON DIOXIDE,

MULTIPURPOSE DRY CHEMICAL, CARBON DIOXIDE,

1. Enough OXYGEN to sustain combustion

 A more complete set of equations for

 CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

 The simple word equation for the combustion of a hydrocarbon

The Fire HEAT