Ch 1.

Amplifiers
Ideal OP Amps
Basic OP Amp Circuit Blocks
Analog Computation
Nonlinear OP Amp Applications
OP Amp Considerations
Guarding
Passive Filters
Active Filters
VCO(Voltage Controlled Oscillator)
 Function of Amplifiers

Amplifiers provides
 GAIN
 Filtering, Signal processing, Correction for
Nonlinearities

Temperature
Pressure Signal
Flow
Conditioning Digital
Motion Sensor
Circuitry Computer
….

Chap 0 2
 Ideal OP Amps

Transfer Function = Output / Input
 Voltage Amp TF (Gain): Av 
vo
vi
 Usually Av  1
 OP Amp is preferred
 Easy to use in circuit designed compared to
discrete Transistor circuits

Chap 0 3
 Ideal OP Amps (Cont.)

Assumptions
 Open loop Gain = Infinity
 Input Impedance Rd = Infinity
 Output Impedance Ro = 0
 Bandwidth = Infinity
 Infinite Frequency Response
 vo=0 when v1 = v2
 No Offset Voltage

Chap 0 4
 Ideal OP Amps (Cont.)

Note
 v0 = A(v2 – v1)
 If v0 = , A =  (Typically 100,000)
• Then v2 – v1 = 0  v2 = v1
 Since v2 = v1 and Rd = 
• We can neglect the current in Rd

Rule 1
 When the OP Amp is in linear range the two inputs are
at the same voltage

Rule 2
 No Current flows into either terminal of the OP Amp

Chap 0 5
 Basic OP Amp Circuit Blocks

Inverting Amplifier

Noninverting Amplifier

Unity-Gain Amplifier

Differential Amplifier

Instrumental Amplifier

The Electrocardiogram Amplifier

Chap 0 6
 Inverting Amplifier

Inverting Amp with 
From Rule 1
Gain = - Rf / Ri  v- = v+ = 0

From Rule 2 & KCL
 ii + if = 0  ii = -if
 From Ohm’s law
 ii = vi / Ri , , if = vo / Rf
 v i / Ri = - v o / Rf
 vo / vi = -Rf / Ri

Inverting Amp Gain
Virtual Ground
 -Rf / Ri

Chap 0 7
 Inverting Amplifier (Cont.)

Linear Range 
Input Impedance
 By Power Supply  Low (Ri)
Voltage  Increasing Ri 
Decreasing Gain
 Increasing Gain by
increasing Rf
• But there is practical
limit

Saturation
Chap 0 8
 Why High Input Impedance ?

Concept of Loading
 계측기가 Sensor 의 출력에

Open Loop Output
영향을 주고 싶지 않음  Vx
 Sensor 의 출력이 amplitude 
Voltage Drop by Load
인 경우에만 중요함 .  Vy = Vx –
Frequency 혹은 Digital
Vx  Rx / (RL + Rx)
출력인 경우에는 영향 없음

Let RL >> Rx
 Vy = Vx
Rx  Amp 혹은 계측기의
x 영향을 제거할 수 있음
Vx Vy RL

Chap 0 9
 Noninverting Amplifiers

Noninverting Amp 
By Rule 2
 Gain = (Rf + Ri) / Rf  Vo = If  (Rf + Ri)
 Vi = If  Ri
 Vo = Vi  (Rf + Ri)/Ri

Gain: Vo/Vi = 1 + Rf / Ri

Gain  1, Always

Input Impedance
 Very Large (Infinite)
By Rule 1
Vi

Chap 0 10
 Unity-Gain Amplifier

Homework #2-1
 Verify that the Gain of
Unity-Gain Amp is 1
Chap 0

Vo = Vi

Applications
 Buffer amplifier
 Isolate one circuit from
the loading effects of a
following stage
 Impedance converter
 Data conversion System
(ADC or DAC) where
constant impedance or
high impedance is
required
11
 Differential Amplifiers

Combination of Inverting and Noninverting Amp

Can reject 60Hz interference

Electrocardiogram amplifier

Differential Noninverting
Chap 0
Instrumentation 12
 Differential Amplifiers (Cont.)

Gain of Differential Amp
 By Rule 2
 V5 = I2 * R2
 V2 = I2 * R1 + V5 = V5 * R1 /R2
+ V5
 V5 = R2 * V2 / (R1 + R2)
 By Rule 1
 V1 = R1 * I1 + V5
 V5 = R2 * I1 + V6
 V6 = (V2 – V1) * R2 / R1

Chap 0 13
 Differential Amplifiers (Cont.)

CMV (Common Mode Voltage)
 If V1 = V2, then V6 = 0

CMG (Common Mode Gain) = 0

DG(Differential voltage Gain)
 If V1  V2, then V6 = (V2-V1)*(R2/R1)

In practice, CMG  0

CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio)
 Measure of the ability to reject CMV
 CMRR = DG / CMG
 The Higher CMRR, the better quality
 Typically, 100 ~ 10,000
 60Hz noise common to V1 and V2 can be rejected

Chap 0 14
 Instrumentation Amplifiers

One OP Amp Differential Amplifier
 Input Impedance is not so High
 Good for Low impedance source
• Strain gage Bridge
 Bad for High impedance source

Instrumentation Amplifier
 Differential Amp with High Input Impedance
and Low Output Impedance
 Two Noninvering Amp + One Differential Amp

Chap 0 15
 Instrumentation Amplifiers (Cont.)

Instrumentation Amp = 
Homework #2-2
Noninverting Amp +  Show that
Differential Amp  DG = (V1-V2) / (V3-V4)
= (2*R4 + R3) / R3
 V6 = (V3-V4)*DG*R2 / R1

First Stage CMRR
 CMRR = DG / CMG = DG

Overall CMG = 0
 High CMRR

High Input Impedance

Gain is adjustable by changing
R3

Chap 0 16
 The Electrocardiogram Amplifier
Low Pass Filter
< 100Hz
< 0.2 V
Gain = 40

Gain = 32

High Pass Filter

Maximize CMRR >0.05Hz
Chap 0 17
 Analog Computation

Digital Signal Processing is preferred
 Flexibility
 Easy to Change
 Elimination of hardware

Analog Signal Processing
 Is preferred when DSP consumes too much
time

Chap 0 18
 Inverter and Scale Changer

Inverting Amp with 
Inverter
Gain = - Rf / Ri  Rf / Ri = 1

Inverter and Scale
Changer
 Proper choice of Rf / Ri

Application
 Use of inverter to scale
the output of DAC

Chap 0 19
 Adders (Summing Amplifiers)

Adder 
Vo = -Rf(V1/R1 + V2/R2
 Inverter with Several +… + Vn/Rn)
inputs  If = I1 + I2 + In
 I1 = V1/R1, …
 Vo = -If * Rf

Rf determines overall
Gain

Ri determines
weighting factor and
input impedance

Chap 0 20
 Integrator

Homework #2-3 
Drawbacks
 Show that  Vo will reach saturation
1 t1 voltage, if Vi is left
v0 
RC 0
vi dt  vic connected indefinitely
 Integrator operates as
an open-loop amplifier
for DC inputs

Chap 0 21
 Practical Integrator


Reset
 S1 Closed, S0 Open
 Inverter
 C is initialized to Vr

Integrate
Controlled By  S1 Open, S0 Closed
Relay or 
Hold
Solid State Switch or  S1 Open, S0 Open
Analog Switch  Keeps Vo constant
 Read and Process

Chap 0 22
 Differentiators

Homework #2-4 
Drawbacks
 Show that  Instability at High
dvi frequencies
v0   RC
dt 
Practical Differentiator
 To Stable R
Ri 
A0 0 C

Chap 0 23
 Comparators

Compare Two Inputs 
Drawbacks
 Vi > Vr  If Vi = Vr + small noise
 Vo = -Vs  Rapid fluctuation
 Vi < Vr between  Vs
 Vo = Vs

Chap 0 24
 Comparators with Hysteresis

Positive Feedback 
Homework #2-5
 Hysteresis loop  Show that
 Can remove the effect (VS  Vr ) R1
Vr  Vr  Vr 
of Small Noise R1  R2
 Reduce Fluctuation (VS  Vr ) R1
Vr  Vr  Vr 
R1  R2

Chap 0 25
 Rectifiers

Precision Half
Wave Rectifier


Precision Full
Wave Rectifier


Limiters

Chap 0 26
 OP Amp Considerations

Effects of Nonlinear characteristics
 Compensation
 Undesirable Oscillation at High frequency
• Add external Capacitance according to Spec sheet
 GBW (Gain Bandwidth Product)
 Gain  Bandwidth = Constant (Typically 1MHz)
• For Noninverting Amp: Bandwidth = GBW / Gain
 Input Offset Voltage
 Practical OP Amp
• Zero input Does NOT give Zero output
 Input Offset Voltage
• Applied input voltage to obtain Zero output
 Nulling the offset Voltage
• Adding External Resister according to Spec sheet

Chap 0 27
 OP Amp Considerations (Cont.)
 Input Bias Current
 Practical OP amp
• Current flowing into the terminal is NOT Zero
• To keep the input Tr of OP amp turned on
• Causes errors proportional to feedback network R
 To minimize errors
• feedback R should be low (<10K)
 Slew Rate
 Maximal rate of change of amplifier output voltage
• Ex: Slew rate of 741 = 0.5 V / s
– Time to output change from –5V to 5V = 20 s
 To Minimize slew rate problem
• Use OP amp with smaller external compensating C

Chap 0 28
 OP Amp Considerations (Cont.)
 Power Supply
 Usually 15V
• Linear Range 13V
 Reducing power supply voltage
• Results reduced linear range
• Device does not work < 4V
 Different OP Amps
 Bipolar Op Amps
• Good input offset stability
• Moderate input bias current and Input resistances
 FET
• Very Low input bias current and Very High Input resistances
• Poor Input offset voltage stability

Chap 0 29
 OP Amp Considerations (Cont.)

Common OP amps, Typical Specifications
 1986 Prices

Chap 0 30
 Guarding

Elimination of Surface Leakage Currents

Elimination of Common Mode Signals


Very important in practice
 But skip in this course

Chap 0 31
 Passive Filters

Passive Circuits
 Contains only passive elements
 Registers, Capacitors and Inductors
 Examples
 Bridge Circuit
 Voltage Divider
 Filters

Filters
 Eliminate unwanted signal from the loop
 Low Pass, High Pass, Band Pass, Notch, …

Chap 0 32
 Passive first-order Low pass Filter

Pass desired Audio 
Homework #2-6
signal and reject  Show that
undesired RF Vo 1
 ,   RC

Order of Filter Vi 1  j
 Number of C and L  Plot Magnitude and
Phase plot (Bode plot)
 Meaning of C

Chap 0 33
 Passive first-order High pass Filter

Pass desired High 
Homework #2-7
frequency signal and  Show that
reject undesired low Vo j
 ,   RC
frequency signal Vi 1  j
 Plot Magnitude and
Phase plot (Bode plot)
 Meaning of C

Chap 0 34
 Passive second-order Low pass Filter

To increase the 
Homework #2-8
attenuation of transfer  Show that
function Vo 1

Vi ( j /  c ) 2  (2 j /  c )  1

Order of Filter
1 R C
 Number of C and L c  , 
LC 2 L
 Meaning of Quality factor
1 
Q  c ,   3dB BW
2 

 1

 1
 1

Chap 0 35
 Passive second-order High pass Filter

To increase the 
Homework #2-9
attenuation of transfer  Show that
function Vo

2
Vi ( j /  c ) 2  (2 j /  c )  1

Order of Filter
1 R C
 Number of C and L c  , 
LC 2 L

 1

 1
 1

Chap 0 36
 Active First-order Low Pass Filter

Inverting Amp + 
Identical frequency
Feedback Capacitor response with Passive
filter

Very Low Output
impedance
 Negligible Loading
Effect

Chap 0 37
 Active First-order High Pass Filter

Inverting Amp + Input 
Identical frequency
Capacitor response with Passive
filter

Very Low Output
impedance
 Negligible Loading
Effect

Chap 0 38
 Active High-order Filters

Low Pass Filters


High Pass Filters

Chap 0 39
 Bandpass and Band-reject Filters

Butterworth Filters
 Maximally Flat Magnitude response in pass band
 High Attenuation Rate

Chebyshev Filters
 Maximum Attenuation Rate
 Ripple in pass band

Bessel Filters
 Maximally flat time delay in response to step input
 Attenuation Rate is very gradual

Chap 0 40
 Filter Design Table
 C when 0 = R0 = 1

Chap 0 41
 Filter Design Example

Low pass five-pole Butterworth filter with a corner
frequency of 200Hz and input resistance of 50K
 Economic Solution = 3rd order + 2nd order
 Desired R and C ?
 C1A = (0 R0 C0 ) / ( R)
= 1x1x1.753 / 2x200x50K = 27.9 nF
 C2A = 21.6 nF, C3A = 6.7 nF, C1B = 51.5 nF, C2B = 4.9 nF

Chap 0 42
 VCO(Voltage Controlled Oscillator)

VCO = Voltage to 
VCO converts an input
Frequency(V/F) voltage to a series of
Converter output digital pulses
whose frequency is
proportional to the
input voltage

Applications
 ADC
 Digital Transmission
 Telemetry
 Digital Voltmeter

Chap 0 43
 VCO (Cont.)

Module form
 Better linearity, Lower Gain drift, Higher full-scale
frequencies than IC

Monolithic IC form
 Less expensive, Small size
 Lower drift, Better flexibility of frequency range

Examples
 LM331
 Low cost VCO from National Semiconductor
 Maximum nonlinearity 0.01% over 1 ~ 100KHz
 CD4046B
 PLL contains VCO
 Maximum nonlinearity 1.0% over 1 ~ 400MHz

Chap 0 44
 PLL(Phase Locked Loop)

VCO is commonly used 
Control loop
in PLL  Goal

Applications  Minimize z(t)
 Communications  s(t) = r(t)
 Radar  Change r(t) until z(t)=0
 Time and frequency
 s(t) can be obtained
By reading r(t)
control
 Instrumentation system

Homework #2-10
 통신 교재를 참고하여
PLL 의 설계 및 해석
과정을 정리할 것

Chap 0 45
 VCO Interfacing

Output of VCO 
# of pulse / Duration
 Digital pulses whose  Duration
frequency is  Controlled by
proportional to input Sampling Gate
voltage  # of Pulse
 Counted in Counter

Chap 0 46
More on Passive Circuits
Divider
Bridge
Filter : See Chapter 1

Sensor Time Response

 Divider Circuit

Convert Register 
Output Voltage
Variations to Voltage  Vo = {R2 / (R1 + R2)} Vs
Variations

Vs

R1, R2 대신 저항이
변화하는 센서를 연결하면
저항의 변화를 전압의
R1
변화로 바꾸어 측정할 수
Vo 있음

R2

Chap 0 48
 Divider Circuit: Drawbacks

Vo is not linearly changed
 Ex: Vs = 5V, R1 = 1K, R2 = 0 ~ 1K(Sensor)
Vo Vs/2
Vs/3
R2
500 1K

Output Impedance(R1 || R2) is not so High

Large Power Consumption
 Both R1 and R2 dissipate power

Sensor 출력이 0 인 경우에도 출력 발생

온도 영향
 R1, R2 에 Insulation 필요

Chap 0 49
 Divider Circuit: Example

R1 = 10K, R2 = (4K ~ 12K), Vs = 5V
 Maximum Vo = 5 {12 / (10+12)} = 2.73V
 Minimum Vo = 5 { 4 / (10 + 4)} = 1.43V
 Maximum Z = (10K || 12K) = 120/22 K
 Minimum Z = (10K || 4K) = 40/14 K
 Maximum Power = (Vo)2/R2
= (2.73)2/12K = 0.62mW
 Minimum Power = (1.43)2/4K = 0.51mW

Chap 0 50
 Bridge Circuit

Convert Impedance

Eo = Ea – Eb
 Ea = {R3/(R1 + R3)} E
variance to Voltage
 Eb = {R4/(R2 + R4)} E
variation  Eo = {(R2R3 – R1R4) /

Basic DC Wheatstone (R1+R3)(R2+R4) } E
Bridge 
Null Condition (Eo = 0)
 R1R4 = R2R3
 E 에 무관함
R1 R2 
Example (R1 is sensor)
 Eo 측정치를 이용하여
E a Eo b 직접 계산
 Null Condition 이 될 때까지
R3 R4 R2 조절한 후 계산

Chap 0 51
 Using Galvanometer as a Null Detector

Thevenin’s Equivalent 
RTH = R1 || R3 + R2 || R4
= R1R3/(R1+R3)
+ R2R4/(R2+R4)
R1 R2  VTH = {(R2R3-R1R4) /
E a G b (R1+R3)(R2+R4)} E
= Eo
R3 R4  IG = VTH / (RTH +RG)

a 
Example
RTH  R1=R2=R3=2K, R4 =
2.05K, RG = 50, V=5V
VTH IG RG
 IG = -15.0A

b
Chap 0 52
 Bridge Sensitivity
R R R R R+R R+R

E G E G E G
R R+R R+R R+R R+R R+R


Output (Approximation)
Eo = (R/4R)E Eo = (R/2R)E Eo = (R/R)E

Sensitivity
Eo/R = E/4R Eo/R = E/2R Eo/R = E/R


Accuracy of Approximation More Sensitive
 R < 0.05R, then 98% Accurate
 R < 0.1R, then 95% Accurate

Chap 0 53
 Bridge Resolution

Detector 의 Resolution 에 의하여 결정됨

Example
 R1=R2=R3=R4=120, E=10V
 If resolution of Detector is 10mV, Then
resolution of R4 ?
 10mV = {R3 / (R1+R3)}E - {R4 / (R2+R4)}E
  R4 = 119.52
  R = 120 – 119.52 = 0.48
  R4 가 120  0.48 (119.52 ~ 120.48) 사이면
Null 로 Detect

Chap 0 54
 Lead Compensation

Bridge at Control room 
Compensation using 3
and Sensor in Remote Lead Lines
Plant 
Eo = {R/(R+R+RL)} E –

Eo = {R/(R+R)} E – {(R)/(R+R+RL)} E
{(R+RL)/(R+R+RL)} E =0
0

R R
R R
E G RL
E G RL
R R
R R RL
RL
Chap 0 55
 Potential Measurement using Bridge

저항을 변경하여 
Ec = Ea + Ex
Galvanometer 의 
E = Ec – Eb
눈금을 Null 이 되게 함 = - (Eb – Ea –Ex)

Then Ex ?? = Ex
+ {R3/(R1+R3)}E
R1 R2 - {R4/(R2+R4)}E
c 
At Null (E = 0)
E a Ex G b  Ex = {R4/(R2+R4)}E
- {R3/(R1+R3)}E
R3 R4

Chap 0 56
 AC Bridges

Eo = {Z3/(Z1+Z3)}E 
Example
- {Z4/(Z2+Z4)}E  Z1 = 1K

Null Condition  Z2 = 2K
 Z1Z3 = Z2Z4  Z3 = R(1K) + C(1F)
 Z4 = R4 (?) + C4(?)
 Z3 = R + 1/(jC)
Z1 Z2 = 1K – j/(1 x )
 Z1Z3=Z2Z4
E a G b • Re1 + j*Im1 = Re2 +
j*Im2
Z3 Z4 – R4 = 2K
– C4 = 0.5F

Chap 0 57
 Summary of Bridge

Convert variation of resistance to variation
of voltage

Nonlinear response to a linear variation of
resistance
 Assumed Linear in a small range

Chap 0 58
 Sensor Time Response

Desired Response 
No Sensor Gives Ideal
 Step Response Response
 Model
 Zero order
 First order
 Second order

Real Application
 Assumed Zero Order or
First Order
 Model or Table is used

Chap 0 59
 Zero Order Response

b(t) = Kc(t-td) + bd b(t)
b(t)
 td = bd = 0 Kcf
 b(t) = K  c(t) Kci
 Ideal with Gain K t

b(t)
 td = 0
 b(t) = K  c(t) + bd Kcf+bd
 Biased Kci+bd t

 bd = 0 b(t)
Kcf
 b(t) = K  c(t-td)
Kci
 Time Delayed t
td
Chap 0 60
 First Order Response
 b(t )  bi  (b f  bi )[1  e  t /  ] 
To Reduce Transient
 bi : Initial Sensor Error
Output   << 1
 bf : Final Sensor  Modeling the response
Output  Mathematic
  : Sensor Time  Table Look Up
Constant  b(t )  bi  (b f  bi )[1  e  t /  ]
 t=
63%
b(t )  bi  [1  e 1 ](b f  bi )
 0.6321(b f  bi )
 t = 5
 b(t )  bi  0.993(b f  bi )
Transient Steady State
Chap 0 61
 Example: 1st Order Response

Temperature sensor
 Linear TF: 33mV/C, with =1.5sec
 Find output at 0.75sec after input 2041C
 From b(t )  bi  (b f  bi )[1  e  t /  ]
• b(0)  bi = 20C x 33mv/C = 660mV
• b()  b f = 20C x 33mv/C = 1353mV
• b(t )  660  (1353  660)[1  e t /1.5 ] mV
 b(0.74) = 932.7 mV
• 932.7 mV / 33 mV / C = 28.3C
 Error = 41C – 28.3C = 12.7C

Chap 0 62
 Second Order Response
 R(t )  R0 e  at sin(2 f n t )
 R(t) : Transient Output
 a : Output Damping
Constant
 fn : Natural Frequency
 Ro : Amplitude

Chap 0 63