Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Discrete Time Control System
Discrete Time Control System
Set 1
The Transforms
The Laplace transform of a function f(t):
st
F (s ) f (t )e dt
0
The one-sided z-transform of a function x(n):
X (z)
n 0
x (n )z n
2
Two sided z-transform
• In the two-sided z-transform, the time function x(t) is assumed to be
non-zero for t<0, and the time sequence x(kT) is considered to have
non-zero values for k<0.
• Both the one-sided and two-sided z-transforms are series in powers
of z-1 .
• The expansion of RHS of X ( z ) x (n )z n gives
n 0
X(z)=x(0)+x(T)z-1+z(2T)z-2+…+x(kT)z-k+…
• This implies that the z-transform of any continuous-time function x(t)
can be written in the series form by inspection.
• The z-k in this series indicates the position in time at which the
amplitude x(kT) occurs.
Relationship to Fourier Transform
X (re i )
n
x( n )r n e in , and if r 1,
X (e i ) X ( )
n
x(n )e in
4
Region of Convergence
The z-transform of x(n) can be viewed as the Fourier
transform of x(n) multiplied by an exponential sequence
r-n, and the z-transform may converge even when the
Fourier transform does not.
By redefining convergence, it is possible that the Fourier
transform may converge when the z-transform does not.
For the Fourier transform to converge, the sequence must
have finite energy, or:
n
x (n )r n
5
Convergence (contd.)
The power series for the z-transform is called a Laurent series:
X (z)
n
x ( n )z n
6
Poles and Zeros
When X(z) is a rational function, i.e., a ration of polynomials in z,
then:
1. The roots of the numerator polynomial are referred to as the
zeros of X(z), and
2. The roots of the denominator polynomial are referred to as
the poles of X(z).
7
Poles and Zeros
b0 z m b1 z m1 bm
X(z) may have the form X ( z)
zn a1 z n 1 an
b0 z z1 z z2 z zm
X ( z)
or z p1 z p2 z pn
Where pi’s are the poles and zi’s are the zeros of X(z).
• The location of poles and zeros determine the characteristics of
the x(k).
z z 0.5
Example: X ( z)
z 1 z 2
Here X(z) has zeros at 0, and -0.5 and poles at -1 and -2.
8
Example
Region of convergence
x (n ) a nu(n )
a
The z-transform is given by:
X (z)
n
a nu(n )z n
n 0
(az 1)n
9
Properties of the z-Transform
1. Linearity: ax1 [n] bx2 [n] aX 1 [ z ] bX 2 [ z ]
2. Time-shift: x[n n0 ] z n0 X [ z ]
3. Multiplication by n: dX [ z ]
nx[n] z
dz
Proof:
X(z) x[n]z
n
n
dX ( z ) dX ( z )
n x[n]z n 1
z n x[n]z n Z nx[n]
dz n dz n
Properties of the z-Transform (contd.)
z
4. Multiplication by a : n a x[n] X
n
a
Proof:
n
(a
z z
Z a n u ( n)
n
n
x[n]) z n
n
x[ n ]
a
X
a
Proof: Z x[n] * h[n] Z x[k ]h[n k ] x[k ]h[n k ]z n
k n k
x[k ] h[n k ]z n
k n m n k
Change of index on the second sum:
( m i ) k )
m
Z x[n] * h[n] x[k ] h[m]z
x[ k ]z h[ m ]z
k m k m
X ( z)H ( z)
The ROC is at least the intersection of the ROCs of x[n] and h[n], but
can be a larger region if there is pole/zero cancellation.
• The system transfer function is completely analogous to the CT case:
h[n] H ( z ) h[ n
n
] z n
Initial-Value and Final-Value Theorems
(One-Sided ZT)
• Initial Value Theorem: x[0] lim X ( z )
z
Proof:
lim X ( z ) lim x[n]z n lim x[0] x[1]z 1 ... x[0]
z z z
n 0
• Example: 3z 2 2 z 4 3z 2 2 z 4
X ( z) 3
z 2 z 1.5 z 0.5 ( z 1)( z 2 z 0.5)
2
3z 2 2 z 4 5
lim x[n] [( z 1) X ( z )] z 1 2 10
n z z 0.5 z 1
.5
The z-transform and the DTFT
• The z-transform is a function of the complex z variable
• Convenient to describe on the complex z-plane
• If we plot z=ej for =0 to 2 we get the unit circle
Im
X e j
Unit Circle
r=1
0
Re
2 0 2
Region of Convergence
• The set of values of z for which the z-transform converges
• Each value of r represents a circle of radius r
• The region of convergence is made of circles
n n0
Im
• For Convergence
we require
n
n0
az1
1a
Z-transform of elementary functions
X ( z ) Z [1(t )] 1z k
k 0
1 z 1 z 2 z 3
1 z
1
for z >1
1 z z 1
X ( z ) Z [t ] x(kT ) z k
kTz k
T kz k
k 0 k 0 k 0
T ( z 1 2 z 2 3 z 3 )
z 1 Tz
T for z >1
1 z
1 2
z 1
2