First Order Circuit

• Capacitors and inductors

• RC and RL circuits
What is First Order Circuit?

:: A circuit which contain at least a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C)

 simply called RC circuit

:: A circuit which contain at least a resistor (R) and an inductor (L)

 simply called RL circuit

:: Analysis on these RC or RL circuits gives the first order differential equation

:: RC and RL circuits can be found in many applications: electronics,

commmunications, control system, power electronics, power system, etc.

We will study on capacitors and inductors first before

we do the analysis on the first order circuit
Capacitors

Upper and lower plates made

R of conducting material

These plates are

separated by a distance d

The basic structure of a

capacitor
Capacitors

R When the switch is closed,

electrons start to accumulate on
the bottom plate whereas the
e e e
upper plate looses electrons
e
++ +
+ + ++ ++
+ + + +

  
    
   
e Current (or electrons) ceased to
e conduct when the voltage
e e e across the plate equals source
voltage
Capacitors
The amount of charge (q) deposited on the plate is
proportional to the voltage between the plate (v)

q  Cv

++++++++++++++++
C – is known as the capacitance of the
capacitor, measured in farads (F)



The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the physical dimension of

the capacitor and the material (dielectric) between the plate:

A where A the surface area of each plate, d is the

C separation between plate and  is the permittivity
d of the dielectric
Capacitors

• With the same A and d, dielectric with high permittivity will have
higher capacitance

• For vacuum permittivity is 8.85 x 10-12 F/m

• The ratio of any dielectric permittivity to the vacuum permittivity

is called the relative permittivity , r

Some example:
dielectric r
Air 1.0006
Teflon 2.0
A Rubber 3.0
C Mica 5.0
d Ceramic 7500
Capacitors

In circuit theory, we are more interested in the voltage-current relation of a

capacitor

From q  Cv , take the time derivative on both sides :

i
dv +
iC
dt
v

The voltage in terms of current:

1 t 1 t
v(t) =
C
ò
-¥
i dt or v(t) =
C
ò i dt + v(t )
to o
Capacitors
1 2
Energy in capacitor is given by: w Cv
2

• Energy is stored in the electric field between the plates

• The stored energy can be retrieved
• Ideally capacitor DOES NOT dissipate energy

Important properties of a capacitor (for SKEE1043):

1. It behaves as an open circuit to DC quantities

2. The voltage cannot change abruptly – it has to be continuous

Capacitors
Types of capacitors
Capacitors
Construction
Capacitors

Example
An initially uncharged 1-mF capacitor has the current shown below across it.
Calculate the voltage across it at t = 2 ms and t = 5 ms.
Capacitors

Example
Under DC conditions, find the energy stored in each capacitor
 Capacitors
Series connection

i C1 C2 C3 i

+ v1 - + v2- + v3- +
C4 v4
- Cs
C6 C5
- v 6+ - v5 +

v = v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 + v5
1 1 1
ò i dt + v2 ( t0 ) +... + ò i dt + v ( t )
t t t
v=
C1
ò i dt + v1 ( t0 ) +
to
C2 to
C6 to 6 0

é1 1 1ù t 1 t
v =ê + +... + ú ò i dt + é
ëv1 ( t0 ) + v2 ( t0 ) +... + v6 ( t0 ) ù
û v= ò i dt + v ( t )
0
ëC1 C2 C6 û to Cs to

1 é1 1 1 1 1 1 ù
\     =ê + + + + + ú
Cs ëC1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 û
N
1 1
For N series connected capacitors, equivalent capacitor Cs is given by: =å
Cs j=1 C j
 Capacitors
Parallel connection
i i
i1 i2 i3 i4
+ C2 C3 C4 Cp
C1 +
v
v
-
-

i = i 1 + i2 + i 3 + i 4

dv dv dv dv
i =C1 +C2 +C3 +C4
dt dt dt dt
dv dv
i =[ C1 +C2 +C3 +C4 ] i =C p
dt dt

\    C p =[ C1 +C2 +C3 +C4 ]

N

For N parallel connected capacitors, equivalent capacitor Cp is given by: C p =å C j

j=1
Capacitors
Parallel and series connection

Find the equivalent capacitance, Ceq

Inductors
Faraday’s law

When a coil of N turns is placed in region of changing flux, an emf (voltage)

will be induced across a coil determined by Faraday’s law:

d
eN
dt
d
is the instantaneous change in flux
dt
Inductors
Lenz’s law

When switch is closed,

current starts to flow

flux starts to build and link the coil
+ -
flux linking the coil will change with time

i According to Faraday’s law, emf will be

+  induced:
d
eN
dt

According to Lenz’s law:

an induced effect is always such as to oppose the cause that produced it
Inductors
Inductance

Inductance is a measure of the change in flux linking a coil due to a change in

current through a coil :
d
L N
di

 For the same change in current and N, a coil with a larger

change in flux has a larger inductance

The inductance of a coil depends on the construction of the coil and

the magnetic properties of the core:

N2A
L
l
Inductors
Inductance

Example for a toroid core

N = number of turns of coil

 = permeability of the core

N2A
L
l
Inductors
Inductance
N2A
L  henrys (H)
l

• A core made of ferromagnetic material with high permeability

is normally used to increase the inductance of a coil

  is typically written as  = r o where o is the permeability

of the free space and r is the relative permeability of a
material. o = 4 x 10-7 Wb A-1m-1
Inductors
Inductance

In circuit theory we normally interested in the voltage-current relation of a

inductor.

d d di
From v N , this can be written as: v  N .
dt di dt

i
+
di
 v L v
dt


The current in terms of voltage:

1 t 1 t
L t o
i v dt  i( t o )
L  
i v dt or
Inductors
1 2
Energy in an inductor is given by: w Li
2

• Energy is stored in the magnetic field produced by the coil

• The stored energy can be retrieved
• Ideally inductor DOES NOT dissipate energy

Important properties of an inductor (for SKEE1043):

1. It behaves as short circuit to DC quantities

2. The currents cannot change abruptly – it has to be continuous

Inductors
 Inductors
Series connection

• The equivalent inductance of series-connected inductors is the sum of the

individual inductances.
v  v 1  v 2  v 3  ....  v n
di di di di
v  L1  L2  L3  ....  L n
dt dt dt dt
di
v   L1  L 2  L 3  ....  L n 
dt

di
v  L eq
dt

L eq  L1  L 2  ...  L N
 Inductors
Parallel connection

• The equivalent capacitance of parallel inductors is the reciprocal of the sum

of the reciprocals of the individual inductances.

i  i1  i2  i3  ....  in

1 t 1 t 1 t 1 t
i 
L1 o
t
vdt 
L2 t vdt  L t vdt  ....  L t vdt  i1(t o )  i2 ( t o )  ...  in ( t o )
o o o
3 n

 1 1 1 1  t
i      ....    vdt  i1( t o )  i2 ( t o )  ...  in ( t o )
t
 L1 L 2 L 3 Ln  o

1 t
i
L eq t vdt  io,eq ( t o )
o

1 1 1 1
   ... 
L eq L1 L 2 LN
Examples

Under steady state find i, iL, vc

and energy stored in C and L
Examples

Determine vc, iL, and the energy stored in the capacitor and inductor in the circuit
of circuit shown below under dc conditions.
OP–AMP Circuits

Integrator

vv-- == vv++
+ vc −

ii-- == ii++ == 00

vi dv vi dv
iR  iC  C C   C o
R dt R dt
1 t
Therefore vo can be written as : vo  
RC 0
vi dt  vo ( 0 )

Assuming vo(0) = 0, 1 t
vo  
RC 0
vi dt
OP–AMP Circuits

Differentiator

vv-- == vv++

+ vc − ii-- == ii++ == 00

vo dv
iR  iC  C C
R dt
dvi
Hence vo can be written as: vo   RC
dt