The bones

z and
the muscles
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BONES

 Bones protect the various organs of

the body, produce red and white blood
cells, store minerals, provide structure
and support for the body, and enable
mobility.
 z The Skeleton/ Skeletal
System
 The human skeletal system consists of all of the bones, cartilage,
tendons, and ligaments in the body. Altogether, the skeleton makes
up about 20 percent of a person’s body weight.
 Your body is built around a living framework called Skeletal System.
Your skeletal system is primarily composed of bones.
 At birth, you have 350 bones.
 As you grow older, some bones fuse together to form larger bones
and you are left with 206 bones as an adult.
 There are also some differences in the male and female skeleton.
The male skeleton is usually longer and has a high bone mass. The
female skeleton, on the other hand, has a broader pelvis to
accommodate for pregnancy and child birth.
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Skull bones

 The adult skull comprises 22 bones.

 Cranial bones. The eight cranial bones form the bulk of

your skull. They help to protect your brain.
 Facial bones. There are 14 facial bones. They’re found
on the front of the skull and make up the face.
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Thoracic cage

 The thoracic cage is made up of the sternum

(breastbone) and 12 pairs of ribs.
 Some of the ribs attach directly to the sternum, while
others are linked to the sternum via cartilage. Some
have no attachment point and are referred to as
“floating ribs.”
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Pectoral girdle

 The pectoral girdle is where the arms attach to the

axial skeleton. It’s made up of the clavicle
(collarbone) and scapula (shoulder blade). There are
two of each of these — one for each arm.
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Upper limbs
 Humerus. The humerus is the long bone of the upper arm.

 Radius. The radius is one of two long bones of the forearm,

found on the thumb side.
 Ulna. The ulna is the second long bone of the forearm,
found on the pinky finger side.
 Carpals. The carpals are a group of eight bones found in
the wrist area.
 Metacarpals. The metacarpals are five bones found in the
middle area of the hand.
 Phalanges. The phalanges are 14 bones that make up the
fingers.
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Pelvic girdle
 The pelvic girdle, commonly known as the hips,
is where the legs attach to the axial skeleton. It’s
made up of two hipbones — one for each leg.
 Ilium. The ilium is the top portion of each hip
bone.
 Ischium. The ischium is a curved bone that
makes up the base of each hip bone.
 Pubis. The pubis is located in the front part of
the hip bone
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Lower limbs
 Femur. The femur is the large bone of the upper leg.
 Tibia. The tibia is the main bone of the lower leg. It forms the shin.
 Fibula. The fibula is the second bone in the lower leg, found in the
outer leg.
 Patella. The patella is also called the kneecap.
 Tarsals. The tarsals are the seven bones that make up the ankle.
 Metatarsal. The metatarsals are the five bones that make up the
middle area of the foot.
 Phalanges. The phalanges are 14 bones that comprise the toes.
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 Different Functions of Skeleton

 Support
1. The skeleton is a rigid frame for the rest of the body

2. The skeleton supports the soft tissues.

3. Without the skeleton, we’d collapse like jelly.

 For example, without ribs, our chests would collapse, preventing our lungs
from working
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 Shape
1. Our shape is mainly due to our skeleton.

 Protection
1. Bones are very tough.

2. They protect delicate organs – like the heart and lungs.

3. For example, the skull protects the brain, like a crash helmet.
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 Movement
1. There are loads of joints.
2. Muscles, attached by tendons, can move various
bones.

 Making Blood Cells

1. Long bones, like the femur, contain bone marrow.
2. New blood cells are made in this bone marrow.
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Different Types of Bones
 1. Long Bones -These include the femur,
humerus, tibia, radius, etc.. They’re where blood
cells are made.
 2. Short Bones- These include bones like the
carpals (in the wrists) and the tarsals (in the
ankles).They’re designed to take a lot of weight
and absorb the stresses of running and jumping
 3. Flat Bones -Some of the bones in the skull
are flat.
 4. Irregular Bones- These are oddly shaped
bones like the vertebrae and thepelvis.
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Effect of Skeleton on Performance

1. The skeleton has a huge effect on the size and shape of the
body.
2. The skeleton determines a person’s height and optimum weight.

3. The skeletal system is vital to performance – for example, people

with long, light bones are likely to out-perform people with short,
dense bones in sports like basketball or high jump.
4. Bone strength is also very important, especially in sports like
rugby or weightlifting which put a lot of strain on the body.
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JOINTS

 Joints are the areas where 2 or more

bones meet.
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Different Sections of Spine
Cervical vertebrae
You have 7 of these.
They made up the neck.

Thoracic vertebrae
You have 12 of these.
The ribs are attached to these.

Lumbar vertebrae
You have 5 of these.

The sacrum
That’s this triangular
shaped bone.

The coccyx
It used to be a tail – but now it
just provides a surface for
muscles to attach to.
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Connective Tissues Join Muscle
and Bones
Cartilage forms cushions
between bones to stop
them rubbing

Ligaments are like very

strong string that holds
bones together.

Tendons attach muscles

to bones (or other
muscles).
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Three Different Types of Joint

Immovable joints. A formulation of two bones that have

been fused. The slight movement might occur in the
joints, resulting in a cushioning effect when an external
force is applied. For example, if a blow is struck on the
head, the immovable joints of the cranium will permit a
slight movement.

Slightly Movable Joints. These joints are not firmly

fixed as are immovable joints, but the structure of bones
and connective tissues in and around the joints restricts
the range of motion to only a few degrees. Examples of
slightly movable joints are those located in the spine. It is
also found between the sacrum and ilia, and at the front
and back attachments of the ribs.

Free Movable Joints. These joints have a comparatively

large movement and are of prime importance in motor
performances. They are located in the upper and lower
extremities. Examples of freely movable joints are the
shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, and knee joints.
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Kinds of Joint Movements
 Flexion (bending) is the movement of a segment of the body causing a decrease in the
angle at the point, such as bending the arm at the elbow or the leg at the knee. The trunk
and neck can flex forward.
 Lateral Flexion is bending sideways, and it can occur to both the right and the left. The
trunk and neck can also flex sideways.
 Horizontal Flexion is a body segment flexes through the horizontal plane. For example,
the arm moves through horizontal flexion at the shoulder joint in throwing the discus or in
the sidearm pitch.
 Dorsiflex (Dorsal Flex) is when the ankle is flexed, causing the top of the foot to draw
closer to the tibia.
 Plantar Flexion (actually extension) is the opposite movement at the ankle.

 The extension (Straightening) is movement in the opposite direction of flexion which

causes an increase in the angle at the joint, such as straightening the elbow or the knee.
 Horizontal
z Extension (Horizontal Abduction) occurs when the body segment extends through the
horizontal plane. Inputting the shot, the opposite arms move through the horizontal extension.
 Hyperextension is an extension of a body segment to a position beyond its normal extended
position, such as arching the back or extending the leg at the hip beyond its vertical position.
(Movement is limited by the strong anterior cruciate ligament.)
 Abduction is the movement of a body segment in the lateral plane away from the midline of the
body, such as raising the leg or the arm sideways.
 Adduction is the movement of a body segment toward the midline, as moving the arm from the
outward horizontal position down to the vertical position.
 Rotation is the movement of a segment around its longitudinal axis. A body segment may be rotated
inward (medially) or outward (laterally). The scapula may be rotated upward or downward and the
spine may rotate to the right or the left.
 Pronation is the rotation of the hand and forearm downward, resulting in a "palm-down" position.

 Supination is the rotation of the hand and forearm upward, resulting in a "palm-up" position.

 Inversion is rotating of the foot turning the sole inward.

 Eversion is the rotation of the foot turning the sole outward.

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 Circumduction is a circular or cone-like movement of a body segment, such as

swinging the arm in a circular movement about the shoulder joint. The kind of
movement is also possible in the wrist, trunk, neck, hip, shoulder girdle, and ankle
joints.
 The elevation is when the shoulder is lifted upward as in shrugging the shoulders.

 Depression is when lowering of the shoulder girdle.

 Protraction (abduction) is the movement of the shoulder girdle away from the
midline of the body, resulting in the broadening of the shoulder.
 Retraction (adduction) is the movement of the shoulder girdle toward the midline
of the body, resulting in narrowing of the shoulders. The clavicle is capable of
some rotation at the sternum and accompanies scapular upward and downward
rotation.
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Types of Movable Joint
 Ball and Socket
 For example, the hip or shoulder. The joint can move in all directions, and it can rotate
as well. So this allows flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, and rotation.  
 Hinge
 For example, the knee or elbow. The joint can go backward and forwards, but not side-
to-side. This allows flexion and extension.
 Condyloid
 For example, the wrist. The joint can move forwards and backward, left to right – but it
can't rotate.
 Pivot
 For example, the joints in your spine that let you shake your head. This joint is between
the atlas ad axis bones in your neck.
 Gliding
 For example, between the tarsals or carpals. The bones move a little bit in all directions
by sliding over each other.
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Levers

 Your muscles and joints act as levers. Joints

multiply either the force of a muscle or the speed
of a movement.

When you bend your elbow, your biceps make

a short movement, but your hand makes a larger
one – this means your hand moves more quickly.
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MUSCLES
1. Muscles are made up of fibers. Only some of these fibers will be ready to do
work.

2. All individual voluntary muscle fibers are either fast-twitch or slow-twitch.

3. Everybody has a similar number of muscle fibers – but different people have
different proportions of fast-twitch and slow-twitch fibers.

4. People who are fit and who have larger muscles have fatter muscle fibers –
and more of their fibers are ready to be used.

5. Nerve impulses are what tell muscles to contract (or in the case of the heart,
they tell it to speed up or slow down).

6. Complex movements are made possible by the coordination of nerve

impulses sent to the muscles by the nervous system.
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Types of Muscles
z Skeletal muscles

 Skeletal or voluntary muscles work as we instruct them. They are under our
control. They make our bodies move. We use them for everyday and sporting
activities such as walking, running, and jumping.

Smooth muscles 
 Smooth or involuntary muscles work automatically. They are not under our
conscious control. They work our internal organs such as the stomach, gut,
and bladder.

Cardiac muscle
 Cardiac or heart muscle is a very special type of involuntary muscle. It is
found only in the heart. It contracts regularly, continuously, and without tiring.
It works automatically but is under constant nervous and chemical control.  
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Muscles Work in Pairs
Muscles are attached to two different bones by tendons.

Only one of these bones will move when the muscle contracts.

Origins – The place where the muscle’s

attached to the stationary bone.

Insertions – The place where the

muscle’s attached to the moving bone.
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Antagonistic Muscles
 Muscles can only do one thing – pull. To make a joint move in two directions, you
need two muscles that can pull in opposite directions.

1. Antagonistic muscles are pairs of

muscles that work against each other.
2. One muscle contracts (shortens) while
the other one relaxes (lengthens) and
vice versa.
3. The muscle that’s doing the work
(contracting) is the prime mover or
agonist.
4. The muscle that’s relaxing is the
antagonist.
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Types of Muscle Contraction

Isometric Contraction – in an isometric

contraction, the muscle stays the same
length and so nothing moves.

Isotonic Contraction – in an isotonic

contraction, the muscle changes length and
so something moves.
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Effects of Using Muscles and
Muscle Tone
Muscle Fatigue – if you use your muscles a lot and they don’t get
enough oxygen, they feel tired or fatigued.

Muscle Atrophy – if you don’t use your muscles, they get smaller.
This is atrophy. 

Cramp – A sudden contraction of a muscle that won’t relax. Caused

by a lack of salt minerals in the blood, or a lack of blood to a muscle.
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What happens to your muscles
when you exercise?

 Muscles never relax completely – there's always some tension in

them. This is called muscle tone. Exercise improves muscle tone,
which in turn improves your posture. If you improve your posture,
you put less strain on your muscles, joints, and bones, and you
won't get injured as easily.
 Exercise also causes muscles to get bigger. The fibers
become thicker and stronger, and the blood supply improves.
More of the muscle fibers are ready for immediate use.
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