THE DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM
 Lesson 3.1: The Need To Take in Food
Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions that take place
inside an organism’s body.
The intake of food from various sources and the processes that
convert food substances into living matter are known as nutrition.
ANIMAL NUTRITION
Autotrophs or self feeders (primary consumer)- Plants and other photosynthetic
organisms can produce their own food by converting inorganic components into
organic components.
Heterotrophs (primary, secondary and tertiary consumers)- because animals on the
other hand must consume organic molecules from other organisms for nutrition.
Animals eat organisms that are dead or alive.
3 DIETARY CATEGORIES
Herbivores- eating plants
Carnivores- eating flesh
Omnivores- eat both plants and animals
DETRITIVORES
- also known as detritus feeders or eaters, heterotrophs that obtain nutrients from
decaying plants or animals called detritus, by breaking them to smaller sizes before
decomposers act on them.
- are heterotrophs that obtain nutrients by consuming detritus (decomposing plant and
animal parts as well as faeces).

Soil dwelling detritivores examples:

Earthworms, slugs, and some insects such as dung flies, woodlice, and springtails.
TYPES OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS IN ANIMALS
A. Intracellular digestion
- single-celled organisms process their food right inside their cells, which occur
inside the cells through food vacuoles. Common in single-celled organisms such
as protists, amobe, and paramecium.
- Amoeba- engulfs their food in the form of bacteria, plant cells, and microscopic
protozoa, through the process known as phagocytosis.
A. Extracellular digestion
- Nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream after they have been broken down
within a digestive cavity while wastes are excreted out.
- Happens when food is broken down outside of cells observed in animals with
incomplete or complete digestive systems.
Incomplete digestive system or gastrovascular cavity
- is observed among simple animals such as the hydra, flatworms, and coelenterates.
- They have a single opening (serves as mouth and anus).
Complete digestive system
- Double opening (one is the mouth and one is the anus).
5 FEEDING MECHANISMS IN ANIMALS
1. Suspension feeding
- Most of these organisms use their body parts to move water toward a feeding structure
to sift through the food suspended in water in a feeding mechanism mode. (ex starfish).
- straining suspended matter and food particles from water, typically by passing the water
over a specialized filtering structure.
2. Filter feeding
- Because they extract food particles
suspended in surface water and
sieve it to various filtering
structures. Ex humpback whales,
clam.
- is a method of aquatic feeding in
which the animal takes in many
small pieces of prey at one time. As
opposed to predators who seek out
specialized food items, filter feeding
is simply opening up your mouth
and taking in whatever happens to
be there, while filtering out the
undesirable parts.
3. Substrate feeders
- Because they eat their way through the soil while digesting and excreting food as they
crawl. Ex earthworms and caterpillar
4. Fluid feeders
- Ingest their food by sucking nutrient-rich fluid from a living host that is either a plant or
an animal.
- Bloodsucking mosquitoes, head lice, and dog ticks have needle-mouth structure that
can pierce to the skin of their host.
- Hummingbirds and bees transfer pollen between flowers while gathering nectar.
5. Bulk feeders
- Higher forms in the animal kingdom.
- Because they ingest large pieces of food into their mouth. Ex snakes
 NUTRIENT UPTAKE IN CELLS AMONG ANIMALS
Endocytosis- the process of large molecules enter the cell

THREE TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS

1. Phagocytosis
2. Pinocytosis
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
1. Phagocytosis
- Also known as cell eating.
- Is a process wherein cells take in large particles or solids through the infolding of cell
membranes to form endocytic cells.
- Phagocytosis is exhibited by WBC to capture and kill invading bacteria, virus, or worn-
out cells, and is thus critical in fighting infections.
- Is also used to eliminate cell debris.
2. Pinocytosis
- Also known as cell drinking.
- Is a process wherein a cell takes in fluid by the invagination of the cell membrane
that forms a vesicle or vacuole.
● Micropinocytosis- a small vesicle with a diameter of 0.1 um.
● Macropinocytosis- vesicle with a diameter of 1-2 um.
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
- also called clathrin-mediated endocytosis, is a process by which cells absorb
metabolites, hormones, proteins and in some cases viruses.
- is a form of endocytosis in which receptor proteins on the cell surface are used to
capture a specific target molecule.
STAGES OF FOOD
PROCESSING
1. Ingestion- the act of eating or taking in INGESTION
food via the mouth cavity.

2. Digestion- which involves mechanical

and chemical breakdown of large
molecules into soluble or diffusible
molecules that can be absorbed by the
cells.
● Mechanical digestion- is used by
chewing or tearing food (through their
food) to break apart large food
particles.
● Chemical digestion- involves breaking
down the food into simpler nutrients
that can be used by the cells.

MECHANICAL DIGESTION
Example of Ingestion and Mechanical Digestion
3. Absorption- where the small
molecules, now in the form of
building blocks, will be absorbed
by the lining of the digestive
tract.

4. Elimination- whereby
undigested food is removed
from the digestive tract.
Human Digestive System
 Human Digestive System
➔ The human digestive system is composed of a tubular alimentary
canal and its accessory glands.
◆ This tubular gut extends from the mouth and end in the anus, with
the most of its coiled in the digestive tract.
➔ Ingestion - the initial phase of food processing, Starts in the mouth or
oral cavity.
➔ Mucin - (in saliva) helps to soften the food.
➔ Teeth - play an important role in physical digestion.
➔ Salivary amylase - (enzyme present in the saliva) also begins
the chemical digestion of food.
➔ Tongue - assists by rolling the food into small, slippery
masses of boli. ( Singular: bolus )
Human digestive system showing
major processes and organs
➔ Esophagus - a long tube connecting the mouth and the stomach.
◆ Muscle layers surrounding the esophagus cause rhythmic, wavelike
contractions known as peristalsis.
◆ move food along the gut.
◆ it would take 5-10 seconds for the food to pass from the pharynx
down to the esophagus and into the saclike stomach.
➔ Sphincters - muscular rings like valves.
◆ regulate the passageway of food into and out of the stomach.
◆ It controls the food to stay within the stomach for 2-6 hours.
➔ Stomach - (J-shape) Digested foods enters here.
◆ lies beneath the diaphragm and partly covered by the liver.
◆ Its inner surface is convoluted, allowing the stomach to fold
up when empty or expand when its full.
◆ the stomach’s muscular walls contract to mash the food into
sloppy soup while it’s lining filled with gastric glands.
➔ Gastric glands
◆ release strong gastric juices
◆ Two types of secretory cells:
1. Parietal cells
2. Chief cells
➔ Parietal cells - secrete hydrochloric acid.
➔ Chief cells - secrete pepsinogen.
◆ pepsinogen - a weak enzyme that, when activated is converted to a
more powerful enzyme known as pepsin.
➔ Gastric juice - is a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid and the enzyme
pepsin with pH between 1.5 - 2.5 .
◆ Despite the presence of the acid, the thick slippery mucus coats and
protects the stomach wall from eroding.
➔ The diluted hydrochloric acid - it provides slightly acidic medium
suitable for the action of the gastric enzymes.
◆ such as when pepsin breaks down some of the complex proteins
even further into simpler peptides.
◆ hydrochloric acid can kill germs and certain potential parasites
◆ Additional Information by Andrey
➔ While food is in the stomach, it undergoes chemical and physical
digestion.
◆ (physical) Peristalsis in the stomach wall churns the food and mixes it
well with the gastric juice.
◆ (chemical) These actions attack the food in a chemical way, thereby
breaking down and dissolving its nutrients.
➔ The partly digested food becomes liquified and, together with gastric
juices, forms chyme.
◆ which passes in small amounts into the duodenum(first part of the
small intestine).
➔ The stomach is connected to the small intestine through a muscular valve
called pyloric sphincter.
◆ which controls the food that passes into the small intestine.
◆ The small intestine is divided into three: duodenum, jejunum,
ileum.
➔ Pancreas - produces hormones responsible for controlling the
glucose level in the blood
◆ releases bicarbonate that neutralizes the acidity of the chyme.
➔ Liver - aids in digestion by producing an alkaline, greenish-
yellow liquid, which contains the bile salts and bile pigments
called bile.
➔ Gallbladder - a greenish yellow bag, temporarily stores bile.
◆ releases bile through a duct (bile duct) into the small
intestine.
◆ bile is not an enzyme, it does not chemically digest food.
➔ Small intestine - is where terminal digestion of carbohydrates ,
lipids, and proteins occurs, as well as where the nutrients are
absorbed by the blood.
◆ proteins are broken down into amino acids.
◆ carbohydrates(starches and sugars), are broken down into
fatty acids and glycerol.
➔ The surface wall contains numerous transverse folds and furrows,
while it’s inner lining called villi (singular: villus) that projects
into the intestinal cavity.
➔ Microscopic examinations also show that epithelial cells of the
villi bear numerous cytoplasmic extensions called microvilli.
◆ both villi and microvilli increase the surface absorption of
the small intestine.
➔ Assimilation - the process of transport and use of absorbed nutrients.
◆ simple sugars are converted into glycogen and stored in the liver.
◆ some glucose is carried into the bloodstream to be distributed
throughout the body.
◆ amino acids are converted into protoplasm and used for growth and
repair of of worn-out tissue of the body.
◆ Fats are brought first to the liver where they are converted into
forms that can be oxidized.
➔ Excess fats are stored in special tissues called adipose tissues (fat storage
and insulating tissues).
◆ located beneath the skin, around the heart, the kidneys, and in the
mesenteries that bind the intestines.
➔ After All nutrients have been absorbed, what remains are
undigested substances that include water and cellulose from the
food consumed.
➔ a small sac between the small intestine and the ascending colon --
Cecum and the blindly ending the appendix.
➔ The main function of the large intestine is to absorb water and
mineral salts from the undigested food material.
◆ Its walls are not the same with small intestines have no villi
◆ after 18-24 hours in the large intestine, most of the water
contained in undigested food is absorbed.
◆ produce vitamin K and two B vitamins.
➔ Feces - nutrients that are not absorbed in the large intestine form a solid
waste.
◆ is made up of dead bacteria and some fat and protein molecules,
undigested food roughage, dried out digestive juices, mucus, and
discarded intestinal cells.
● stored temporarily in the rectum until defecation.
➔ The feces is expelled through the opening called anus.
➔ egestion or defecation - the process of removing undigested matter from
the body.
➔ Two sphincters that regulate the exit of feces - inner voluntary and
outer voluntary sphincter.
➔ voluntary sphincter - is controlled by the brain, which permits one to
have a conscious decision to delay defecation.
Nervous system - stimulates the production salivary amylase and
gastric secretions because of the sight and smell of the food.
Nutritional
Requirements
for plants and
animals
NATHANREV DAPAT
What is proper nutrition?
 WHAT: Proper Nutrition

▪ Healthy eating means eating a variety of foods that give you

the nutrients you need to maintain your health, feel good, and
have energy. These nutrients include protein, carbohydrates, fat,
water, vitamins, and minerals. Nutrition is important for
everyone.
▪ Good nutrition means your body gets all the nutrients,
vitamins, and minerals it needs to work its best. Plan your meals
and snacks to include nutrient-dense foods that are also low in
calories
 WHY: Proper Nutrition

▪ Good nutrition is an important part of leading

a healthy lifestyle. Combined with physical
activity, your diet can help you to reach and
maintain a healthy weight, reduce your risk of
chronic diseases (like heart disease and cancer),
and promote your overall health.
 Nutritional Requirements

▪ Nutrient requirements define the specific nutrients and

amounts that must be included in complete and balanced
diets for healthy animals.
▪ Macronutrients include water, protein, carbohydrates, and
fats. The six essential nutrients
are vitamins, minerals, protein, fats, water, and
carbohydrates.
 Types of Nutritional Requirements for Animals

▪ Water
▪ Carbohydrates
▪ Proteins
▪ Lipids
▪ Minerals
▪ Vitamins
 Water

▪ As a natural solvent, helps

your body digest food and
eliminate waste products,
regulates body temperature,
maintains blood pH and
volume, and keeps the skin
and internal respiratory
surfaces moist.
 Carbohydrates

▪ Are macromolecules that

provide the main source for the
body. It could be divided into
simple sugars found in fruits
such as sugar canes, apples, or
mangoes, or complex sugars in
the form of starches present in
grains, potatoes, and
vegetables.
 *Simple Sugars*

▪ For Complex carbohydrates to

be utilized by the body, it must
first be broken down into simple
sugars such as GLUCOSE.
Excess glucose is stored
temporarily in the liver and
muscle tissues as glycogen for
future use. Plants also contain a
dietary fiber known as cellulose
 Proteins

▪ is a substance that has amino acids, compounds and carbon,

hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulfur and is
found in many foods. An example of a protein is the type of
nutrient found in meats
▪  are organic compounds made up of amino acids.
A protein may have up to four levels of structure. The
complex structures of different proteins give them unique
properties. Enzymes are proteins that speed up biochemical
reactions in cells.
 Lipids

Lipids perform three primary biological functions within the body:

they serve as structural components of cell membranes, function as
energy storehouses, and function as important signaling molecules. The
three main types of lipids are triacylglycerols (also called
triglycerides), phospholipids, and sterols.
any of a group of organic compounds that are greasy to the touch,
insoluble in water, and soluble in alcohol and ether: lipids comprise the
fats and other esters with analogous properties and constitute, with
proteins and carbohydrates, the chief structural components of living
cells
 Minerals

▪ is a chemical element required as

an essential nutrient by
organisms to perform functions
necessary for life. ... As a
group, minerals are one of the
four groups of essential
nutrients, the others of which are
vitamins, essential fatty acids,
and essential amino acids.
 Homeostasis

▪ the tendency towards a relatively stable equilibrium

between interdependent elements, especially as maintained
by physiological processes.
▪ Humans rely on homeostasis to keep their core
temperature hovering around 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit, so
that their bodies can maintain proper function.
Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a relatively stable
internal state that persists despite changes in the world
outside
 Vitamins

▪  are organic compounds

that are required by
advanced animals in
small amounts on a
regular basis.
Classification of Vitamins
 Fat soluble

▪ Fat-soluble
vitamins are vitamins A,
D, E, and K. They are
present in foods
containing fats. The body
absorbs these vitamins as
it does dietary fats. They
do not dissolve in water.
 Water Soluble
▪ Water-soluble vitamins travel
freely through the body, and
excess amounts usually are
excreted by the kidneys. The
body needs water-soluble
vitamins in frequent, small
doses. These vitamins are not as
likely as fat-soluble vitamins to
reach toxic levels.
Vitamin C is needed for the
growth and repair of tissues in
all parts of your body
Vitamin D aids in the
absorption of calcium,
helping to form and maintain
strong bones
 Balanced Diet

▪ A balanced diet is a diet that

contains differing kinds of foods in
certain quantities and proportions
so that the requirement for calories,
proteins, minerals, vitamins and
alternative nutrients is adequate
and a small provision is reserved
for additional nutrients to endure
the short length of leanness.
 Plant Nutrition Requirements

▪ Just like the animals and humans, need a steady supply of

nutrients for survival. Plants have an open growth system
that requires nutrients as raw materials. Plants need two raw
materials. Carbon Dioxide and Water.
▪ Plants can absorb inorganic nutrients and water through
their root system, and carbon dioxide from the environment.
The combination of organic compounds, along with water,
carbon dioxide, and sunlight, produce the energy that
allows plants to grow.
Nutritional Adaptation by plants

▪ Plants cannot perform the biochemical

pathway to convert gaseous nitrogen to
ammonia, but some forms of bacteria can.
These Bacteria, known as nitrogen-fixing
bacteria, live in close association with
plants through their roots. Some of these
bacteria end up being housed inside the
plant tissues called modules.
 Differences/Similarities of Plant and Animal
Nutrition

▪ All living organisms need nutrients to survive. While plants can

obtain the molecules required for cellular function through the process
of photosynthesis, most animals obtain their nutrients by the
consumption of other organisms.
▪ Plants make their own food while animals have to rely on
the plants or other animals for food. 2) In
photosynthesis plant converts carbon dioxide and water (in
the presence of light energy and chlorophyll) to glucose, water and
oxygen. 3) Hence the end products of plant nutrition are actually
glucose and oxygen