Cellular Metabolism

By Ambreen Aleem
 Cellular Metabolism
Cellular metabolism refers to all of the
chemical processes that occur inside living
cells.
 Energy
Energy can exist in two states:
Kinetic energy – energy of motion.
Potential energy – stored energy.
Chemical energy – potential energy stored in
bonds, released when bonds are broken.

Energy can be transformed form one state to

another.
 Energy
The ultimate source
of energy for most
living things is the
sun.
 Laws of Thermodynamics
First law of thermodynamics – energy
cannot be created or destroyed – only
transformed.
Second law of thermodynamics – a closed
system moves toward entropy, increasing
disorder.
Living systems are open systems that maintain
organization and increase it during development.
 Free Energy
Free energy – the energy available for doing
work.
Most chemical reactions release free energy – they
are exergonic.
Downhill
Some reactions require the input of free energy –
they are endergonic.
Uphill
 Enzymes
Bonds must be destabilized before any
reaction can occur – even exergonic.
Activation energy must be supplied so that the
bond will break.
Heat – increases rate at which molecules collide.
Catalysts can lower activation energy.
 Enzymes
Catalysts are chemical substances that speed
up a reaction without affecting the products.
Catalysts are not used up or changed in any
way during the reaction.
Enzymes are important catalysts in living
organisms.
 Enzymes
Enzymes reduce the
amount of activation
energy required for a
reaction to proceed.
Enzymes are not
used up or altered.
Products are not
altered.
Energy released is
the same.
 Enzymes
Enzymes may be pure proteins or proteins
plus cofactors such as metallic ions or
coenzymes, organic group that contain groups
derived from vitamins.
 Enzyme Function
An enzyme works by binding with its
substrate, the molecule whose reaction is
catalyzed.
The active site is the location on the enzyme
where the substrate fits.
Enzyme + Substrate = ES complex.
 Enzyme Specificity
 Enzymes are highly specific.
 There is an exact molecular fit between enzyme and
substrate.
 Some enzymes work with only one substrate, others work
with a group of molecules.
Succinic dehydrogenase oxidizes only succinic acid.
Proteases will act on any protein, although they still
have a specific point of attack.
Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions
Enzyme-catalyzed reactions are reversible.
Indicated by double arrows in reactions.
Tend to go mostly in one direction.
Reactions tend to be catalyzed by different
enzymes for each direction.
Catabolic (degradation) reaction catalyzed by
enzyme A.
Anabolic (synthesis) reaction catalyzed by enzyme
B.
 Importance of ATP
Endergonic reactions require energy to
proceed.
Coupling an energy-requiring reaction with an
energy-yielding reaction can drive endergonic
reactions.
ATP is the most common intermediate in
coupled reactions.
 Importance of ATP
ATP consists of
adenosine (adenine
+ ribose) and a
triphosphate group.
The bonds between
the phosphate
groups are high
energy bonds.
A-P~P~P
 Importance of ATP
Phosphates have
negative charges.
Takes lots of
energy to hold 3 in
a row!
Ready to spring
apart.
So, ATP is very
reactive.
 Importance of ATP
A coupled reaction
is a system of two
reactions linked by an
energy shuttle – ATP.
Substrate B is a fuel
– like glucose or lipid.
ATP is not a
storehouse of energy
– used as soon as it’s
available.
ATP hydrolysis
 Can be coupled to other reactions
Endergonic reaction: ∆G is positive, reaction
is not spontaneous

NH2

+ NH3 ∆G = +3.4 kcal/mol

Glu Glu
Glutamic Ammonia Glutamine
acid

Exergonic reaction: ∆ G is negative, reaction

is spontaneous

ATP + H2O ADP + P ∆G = + 7.3 kcal/mol

Coupled reactions: Overall ∆G is negative;

Figure 8.10 together, reactions are spontaneous ∆G = –3.9 kcal/mol
 How ATP Performs Work
 ATP drives endergonic reactions
 By phosphorylation, transferring a phosphate to other molecules
The three types of cellular work
Are powered by the hydrolysis of ATP

P i
P

Motor protein Protein moved

(a) Mechanical work: ATP phosphorylates motor proteins

Membrane
protein
ADP
ATP +
P i

P P i

Solute Solute transported

(b) Transport work: ATP phosphorylates transport proteins

P
NH2
Glu + NH3 + P i

Glu
Reactants: Glutamic acid Product (glutamine)
and ammonia made
Figure 8.11 (c) Chemical work: ATP phosphorylates key reactants
 The Regeneration of ATP
 Catabolic pathways
 Drive the regeneration of ATP from ADP and phosphate

ATP synthesis from ATP hydrolysis to

ADP + P i requires energy ADP + P i yields energy

ATP

Energy from catabolism Energy for cellular work

(exergonic, energy yielding (endergonic, energy-
processes) consuming processes)
ADP + P i
Figure 8.12
 Oxidation – Reduction -
Redox
An atom that loses
an electron has
been oxidized.
Oxygen is a
common electron
acceptor.
An atom that gains
an electron has
been reduced.
Higher energy.
 Redox Reactions
Redox reactions always occur in pairs.
One atom loses the electron, the other gains
the electron.
Energy is transferred from one atom to another
via redox reactions.
 Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration – the oxidation of food
molecules to obtain energy.
Electrons are stripped away.
Different from breathing (respiration).
 Cellular Respiration
When oxygen acts as the final electron
acceptor (aerobes):
Almost 20 times more energy is released than if
another acceptor is used (anaerobes).
Advantage of aerobic metabolism:
Smaller quantity of food required to maintain
given rate of metabolism.
 Aerobic Respiration
 In aerobic respiration, ATP forms as electrons are
harvested, transferred along the electron transport chain
and eventually donated to O2 gas.
Oxygen is required!
Glucose is completely oxidized.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (heat

Glucose Oxygen Carbon Water or ATP)
Dioxide