Module 4.

Properties of Materials
 Properties of Materials
(Sifat / Karakteristik Material)
1. Mechanical Properties (Sifat Mekanik):
• Elastic properties
• Plastic properties

2. Physical properties (Sifat Fisik):

• Electrical properties
• Magnetic properties
• Thermal properties
• Optical properties

3. Chemical properties (Sifat Kimia)

• Corrosion resistance
Mechanical Properties
 Mechanical Properties

• Mechanical properties • Sifat mekanik

include: termasuk:
– Strength: tensile, – Kekuatan: tarik, tekan,
compressive, shear, geser, fleksural, tekuk
flexural, bending – Impak
– Impact – Fatik / Kelelahan
– Fatigue – Keuletan, kerapuhan
– Ductility, brittleness – Kekerasan
– Hardness – Ketahanan aus
– Wear resistance
 Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties of a material Sifat mekanik material
reflects the relationship between mencerminkan hubungan antara
an applied load or force to its beban atau gaya yang diberikan
response or deformation. terhadap respons atau
deformasinya
Nature of the load:
Bentuk beban:
• Static (a load which changes
relatively slowly with time and • Statik (beban yang berubah
is applied uniformly over a secara lambat terhadap waktu
cross section) : tensile, dan diberikan secara seragam
compressive, shear, torsion, di seluruh penampang): tarik,
bending tekan, geser, torsi, tekuk.

• Impact (a sudden load). • Impak (beban mendadak)

• Dynamic (a fluctuating load • Dinamik (beban yang

over a period of time). berfluktuasi pada suatu periode
waktu).
Types of Load
 COMMON STATES OF STRESS
• Simple tension: cable
F F
Ao = cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)
F
  
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
• Simple shear: drive shaft
M Fs Ao
Ac 
Fs
 
M Ao
2R
Note:  = M/AcR here.
5
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches  structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao ( < 0 here).

6
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)

Palm trees can survive very high winds,

behaving well under bending moments.

6
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
 > 0

z > 0 h< 0

7
Concept of Stress and Strain
(Static load)
When a static load is applied
to a material, the material will
change its shape (deform). If
we follow the degree of
deformation as a function of
load, we will get information
about the "behaviour" of the
material.
lf
Konsep Tegangan dan
Regangan (Beban statik)
Bila beban statik diberikan
pada material, maka
material akan berubah
bentuk (berdeformasi).
Jika kita mengikuti besar
F deformasi sebagai fungsi
beban, maka kita akan
memperoleh informasi
l/2 mengenai "perilaku" dari
material.
l0
A0
F
Loads (F) are expressed in force
units, i.e. ???
Stress () : the intensity of the
internally distributed forces that
resist a change in the form of a
body.
F / A0 [unit ??]
Deformation is used as a general
term to indicate the change in
form of the body.
Strain (): the change per unit
length in a linear dimension of a
body.
= l / l0 [unit ??]
Beban (F) dinyatakan dalam
satuan beban, yaitu ???.
Tegangan () : intensitas
beban yang didistribusikan di
dalam material, yang
menghambat perubahan
bentuk. F / A0 [satuan ??]
Deformasi digunakan sebagai
istilah umum untuk perubahan
bentuk dari sebuah benda /
material.
Regangan (): perubahan
panjang dari sebuah benda.
= l / l0 [satuan??]
 Tensile Testing
• The common way to obtain • Cara umum untuk
mechanical properties of mengetahui sifat mekanik
materials is by conducting a dari material adalah
tensile test. dengan melakukan
pengujian tarik.
Shape of specimen / Bentuk spesimen
Tensile Testing
machines
Tensile Testing
Tensile Testing
Computer plotting
Tensile Testing
Tensile Testing
Elastic Deformation:
• Deformation in which stress and
strain are proportional.
• Nonpermanent → when the applied
force is released, the piece is
returned to its original shape.

Deformasi elastik:
• Deformasi dimana tegangan dan
regangan berbanding lurus.
• Tidak permanen → ketika beban
dilepas, spesimen akan kembali ke
bentuk awal.
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic

2
Elastic Deformation:

• Hooke's law applied:

= E e unit :???
• Where E is known as Young's
modulus or modulus of elasticity
(elastic modulus).
• E of some metals (MPa x 10-4):
Aluminium:6.9 Steel: 20.7
Brass: 10.1 Tungsten: 59.0
Copper: 11.0 Titanium: 10.7
• Higher E → higher ..???
 YOUNG’S MODULI: COMPARISON
Graphite Composites
Metals
Ceramics Polymers /fibers
Alloys
1200 Semicond
10 00 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum
Steel, Ni
Si nitride
CFRE(|| fibers)*
E ceramics
200 Tantalum <111>
Platinum
Cu alloys
Si crystal
<100> Aramid fibers only > E metals
10 0 Zinc, Ti
E(GPa) 80
60
Silver, Gold
Aluminum Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
Glass fibers only >> E polymers
Magnesium, G FRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete
GFRE* Based on data in Table B2,
20 Callister 6e.
CFRE *
10 9 Pa 10 G raphite G FRE( fibers)* Composite data based on
8 reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) * of aligned
Polyester
4 PET carbon (CFRE),
PS aramid (AFRE), or
PC Epoxy only
2 glass (GFRE)
PP fibers.
1 HDP E
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTF E
0.4
LDPE 13
0.2
Elastic Deformation:
• In atomic scale is
manifested as small
changes in the interatomic
spacing and the stretching
of interatomic bonds.
• Dalam skala atomik
diartikan sebagai
perubahan kecil pada
jarak antar atom dan
teregangnya ikatan antar
atom.
Elastic Deformation:
• Poisson's ratio: ratio
of the lateral and axial
strain
 = - x / z
• Poisson's ratio: rasio
antara regangan
lateral and regangan
• Theoretical value for isotropic
aksial
material: 0.25
• Maximum value: 0.50
• Typical value: 0.24 - 0.30
Plastic Deformation: Deformasi Plastis:
• When stress is no longer • Ketika tegangan tidak lagi
proportional to strain. berbanding lurus dgn regangan.
• Permanent and non-recoverable• Permanen and tidak dapat balik
→ upon removal of stress, the → bila beban dilepas, benda tidak
piece does not return to its kembali ke bentuk awalnya.
original shape.
• Dari perspektif atom:
• From atomic perspective: berhubungan dengan pemutusan
corresponds to the breaking of ikatan dengan atom tetangga asal
bonds with original atom dan pembentukan ikatan dengan
neighbours and then reforming tetangga yang baru.
bonds with new neighbours.
• Titik dimana deformasi elastik
• The point where the elastic berubah menjadi plastis disebut
deformation changes into plastic batas elastik or batas
deformation is called elastic limit proportional.
or proportional limit.
 PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION
(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
tensile stress,  at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

p engineering strain, 

p lastic strain

15
 Tensile Properties
• Yield strength y : the stress level where
plastic deformation begins, or where the
phenomenon yielding occur.
• This is sometimes called proof stress,
which is chosen as that causing a
permanent strain of 0.002.
• Kekuatan luluh, y: tegangan dimana
deformasi plastis mulai atau ketika
fenomena luluh terjadi.
• Kadang-kadang disebut sebagai proof
stress, yaitu tegangan yang menyebabkan
regangan sebesar 0.002.
 YIELD STRENGTH, y
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress, 
y

engineering strain, 
p = 0.002
16
• Some steels undergo a very
well-defined elastic-plastic
transition which occurs
abruptly, and termed as:
yield point phenomenon.
• Beberapa jenis baja
mengalami transisi dari
elastik ke plastis secara
jelas, yang disebut dengan
fenomena titik luluh.
 YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
20 00
Steel (4140) qt
y(ceramics)
10 00
>>y(metals)
y (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
700
600
W (pure) >> y(polymers)
Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.
Steel (4140) a

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

400
Steel (1020) cd
300
Al (6061) ag Room T values
,

Hard to measure,
200 Steel (1020) hr
Hard to measure

¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B4,
Yield strength,

Callister 6e.
100 a = annealed
dry
70 PC hr = hot rolled
60 Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 PET
PVC
humid cd = cold drawn
40 cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered

20

LDPE
Tin (pure) 17
10
 Tensile strength:
maximum stress
(~100 - 1000 MPa) Fracture
• Tensile strength: the stress at Strength
the maximum on the
engineering stress-strain
curves. This corresponds to
the maximum stress that can
be sustained by a structure.
• At maximum stress, a small
constriction or neck begins, “Necking”
and this is called necking.
• Fracture / rupture strength:
stress at fracture.
 TENSILE STRENGTH
• Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.
TS
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 6e.
engineering
stress

Typical response of a metal

strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are
aligned and about to break.
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 TENSILE STRENGTH: COMPARISON
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
3000
Aramid fib
E-glass fib TS (ceram)
(MPa)

20 00 Steel (4140) qt
AFRE (|| fiber)
~TS (met)
10 00 W (pure) Diamond GFRE (|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
Steel (4140) a CFRE (|| fiber) ~ TS (comp)
Cu (71500) cw Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) aag
Al oxide >> TS (poly)
Ti (pure)
Room T values
Tensile strength, TS

200 Ta (pure)
Al (6061) a Si crystal
100 <100>
wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4,
Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister 6e.
PVC GFRE ( fiber) a = annealed
40 Concrete PP
30 CFRE ( fiber)
AFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 19
Ductility: the degree of plastic Keuletan: besar deformasi
deformation that has been plastis yang dapat dicapai
sustained at fracture, expressed hingga saat patah, dinyatakan
as: sebagai:

(l f  l0 )
% elongation   100
l0
( Af  A0 )
% AR   100
A0
 DUCTILITY, %EL
L f  Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL  x100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering (brittle if %EL<5%)
tensile
stress,  Ao
larg er %EL Lo Af Lf
(ductile if
%EL>5%)
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 6e.

Engineering tensile strain, 

Ao  A f
• Another ductility measure: %AR  x100
Ao
• Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable.
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
20
• The importance of ductility:
– An indication of a degree
to which a structure will
deform plastically before
fracture.
– Specifies the degree of
allowable deformation
during fabrication.
• Terms of ductile and brittle
• Kegunaan nilai keuletan:
materials. – Menunjukkan sejauh mana sebuah
struktur dapat berdeformasi plastis
sebelum patah.
– Menentukan derajat deformasi
yang diizinkan selama fabrikasi.
• Istilah material ulet and getas.
 TOUGHNESS
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)
tensile larg er toughness
stress,  (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, 

21
 Toughness: the ability of
materials to absorb energy up
to fracture.
• For a material to be tough, it
must display both strength
and ductility.
• Unit ???

Ketangguhan: kemampuan
material menyerap energi
hingga patah.
• Material disebut tangguh bila
memiliki baik kekuatan dan
keuletan.
Fracture surface of tensile specimens
Material Description
mild steel cup-cone, silky
wrought iron ragged, fibrous
gray, flat,
cast iron
granular
cold-worked or heat-treated
"star fracture"
materials
 Ductile Fracture

Al

Steel
True Stress and Strain
Comparison of tensile properties of materials

For each group of materials, determine:

• Which material is the toughest?
• Which material is strongest?
• Which material is the weakest?
• Which material possesses the highest yield strength?
• Which material is the stiffest?
• Which material is the most ductile?
Comparison of tensile properties of materials

For each group of materials, determine:

• Which material is the toughest?
• Which material is strongest?
• Which material is the weakest?
• Which material possesses the highest yield strength?
• Which material is the stiffest?
• Which material is the most ductile?
Comparison of tensile properties of materials

For each group of materials,

determine:
• Which material is the
toughest?
• Which material is strongest?
• Which material is the
weakest?
• Which material possesses
the highest yield strength?
• Which material is the
stiffest?
• Which material is the most
ductile?
Hardness Testing
• Hardness: a measure of material's
resistance to localized plastic
deformation (e.g: small indent or
scratch).
• Measurements:
• Mohs scale: for minerals.
• Brinnel: steel balls (10 mm).
• Vickers: diamond pyramid (136o).
• Rockwell: conical diamond (120o)
or steel balls (1/16 – ½ in).
• Knoop: diamond pyramid.
•Kekerasan: ukuran ketahan
material terhadap deformasi plastis
terlokalisir (mis: indentasi kecil atau
gores).
Mesin Rockwell
Brinell Hardness Machine
Hardness Testing

• Both tensile strength and

hardness are indicators of
metal's resistance to plastic
deformation, therefore they are
roughly proportional. Rule of
thumb:
• Tensile strength (MPa) = 3.45 x
HB

• Baik kekuatan tarik maupun kekerasan adalah indikator

ketahanan material terhadap deformasi plastis,
sehingga keduanya kira-kira berbanding lurus.
 Impact Testing
• Impact energy: the amount of energy that is absorbed by a
material when receiving an impact load, also termed as
notched toughness.
• Method of testing:
Charpy and Izod.

• Energi Impak : jumlah

energi yang diserap oleh
material ketika menerima
beban impak, disebut
juga ketangguhan takik.
• Metode pengujian:
Charpy dan Izod.
 Methode of Impact Testing
• Position of specimen in
Charpy methode

• Position of specimen in
Izod methode
 Impact Testing
• One of the primary functions of Charpy and Izod tests is to
determine whether or not material experiences a ductile-to-brittle
transition, with decreasing temperature.

• Salah satu fungsi utama pengujian Charpy dan Izod adalah

untuk menentukan apakah material mengalami transisi ulet ke
getas, dengan menurunnya temperatur.
 Physical Properties
Electrical properties Sifat listrik
• Response of materials to an • Adalah respons material
applied electrical field.
terhadap medan listrik
• Ohm's law:
yang diberikan.
V = IR
• Hukum Ohm:
• Where: V = applied voltage, I =
current, R = resistance V = IR
• Resistivity: • dimana: V = voltase, I =
= RA / l [m] arus, R = tahanan
• Electrical conductivity: • Resistivitas:
 = 1/
= RA / l [m]
• Konduktivitas listrik:
 = 1/
 Physical Properties
Electrical properties
Electrical conductivity for some
metals [(m)-1 x 10-7]:
Ag = 6.8; Cu = 6.0; Au = 4.3; Al =
3.8, Fe = 1.0, Stainless steel = 0.2
• Semiconductivity:
– Intrinsic: based on
electronic structure
inherent to the pure
material, e.g: Si, Ge.
– Extrinsic: is dictated by
impurity atoms, e.g: GaP,
GaAs, InSb, CdS, ZnTe.
Konduktivitas listrik untuk
beberapa logam [(m)-1 x
10-7]:
Ag = 6.8; Cu = 6.0; Au = 4.3;
Al = 3.8, Fe = 1.0, Stainless
steel = 0.2
• Semiconductivitas:
– Intrinsik: disebabkan
oleh struktur elektron
yang dimiliki oleh
material murni, spt: Si,
Ge.
– Ekstrinsik: ditentukan
oleh atom paduan,
spt: GaP, GaAs, InSb,
CdS, ZnTe.
 Physical Properties
Thermal Properties
• Is the response of a material
to the application of heat.
• Heat capacity (C): the ability
of materials to absorb heat
from external surrounding.
C = dQ / dT [J/kg-K]
• Linier coefficient of thermal
expansion (): the extent to
which a material expands
upon heating [oC-1].
l/l0 = T
Sifat Termal
• Adalah respons material
terhadap panas.
• Kapasitas panas (C):
kemampuan material
menyerap panas dari
lingkungan luarnya.
C = dQ / dT [J/kg-K]
• Koefisien ekspansi panas
linier (): derajat pemuaian
material akibat panas [oC-1].
l/l0 = T
 Physical Properties
Thermal Properties
• Thermal conductivity: the ability • Konduktivitas panas:
of a material to transfer heat. kemampuan material
meneruskan panas.
q = -k dT/dx
q = -k dT/dx
q = heat flux, k = thermal
conductivity, dT/dx = q = fluks panas, k =
temperature gradient konduktivitas panas, dT/dx =
perbedaan temperatur
 Physical Properties
Magnetic Properties Sifat magnetik
• Diamagnetism: a very weak form of • Diamagnetisme: bentuk
magnetism that is nonpermanent magnetisme yg sangat lemah
and persist only while an external yg tidak tetap dan ada hanya
field is being applied. It is induced bila ada medan magnet luar.
by a change in orbital motion of Disebabkan oleh perubahan
electrons due to an applied gerakan orbital elektron akibat
magnetic field. adanya medan magnet.

• Paramagnetism: a phenomenon • Paramagnetisme: fenomena

where a material has magnetic dimana material memiliki dipol
dipoles which can be aligned by an magnet yg dapat disearahkan
external field. oleh medan magnet luar.

• Ferromagnetism: where a material • Ferromagnetisme: material

possesses a permanent magnetic memiliki momen magnetik tetap
moment in the absence of magnetic tanpa perlu adanya medan
field, e.g: BCC ferrite, Co, Ni. magnet luar, cth: BCC ferrite,
Co, Ni.
 Chemical Properties
• Corrosion: destructive and
unintentional attack of a metal, it
is electrochemical and ordinarily
begins at the surface.
• Electrochemical reaction:
• Korosi: serangan terhadap logam
yang merusak dan tidak
direncanakan, bersifat
elektrokimia dan biasanya diawali
di permukaan.

•Oxidation: M → M n+ + n e-
•Reduction: 2H + + 2 e- → H2
O2 + 4H + + 4 e- → 2H2O
O2 + 2H2O + 4 e- → 4 OH –
• Example:
Fe + ½ O2 + H2O → Fe 2+ + 2 OH – → Fe(OH)2
2Fe(OH)2 + ½ O2 + H2O → Fe(OH)3
 Chemical Properties
• Corrosion rate: the rate of • Laju korosi: laju penghilangan
material removal as a material akibat reaksi kimia.
consequence of the chemical
• Dinyatakan sebagai laju
action.
penetrasi korosi
• Is expressed as corrosion
penetration rate (CPR). CPR = KW / At
• W = kehilangan berat setelah
CPR = KW / At
ekspos selama t, r = berat jenis
• W = weight loss after exposure material, A = luas spesimen yang
time t, r = density of material, A = diekspos, K = konstanta.
exposed specimen area, K = a
• Satuan: mpy (mils per year) atau
constant.
mm/yr. 1 mils = 0.001 in.
• Unit: mpy (mils per year) or
mm/yr. 1 mils = 0.001 in.
 Chemical Properties
• Passivity. Some normally active
materials, under particular
environmental conditions, lose
their chemical reactivity and
become extremely inert. This is
termed passivity. , e.g: Al, Fe,
Cr, Ni, Ti.
• Passivity is resulted from
formation of highly adherent
and thin oxide film on the
metal surface.
• Pasivitas. Beberapa material
yang biasanya aktif, dalam
kondisi lingkungan tertentu
dapat kehilangan reaktivitas
kimianya dan menjadi
sangat inert. Hal ini disebut
pasivitas. contohnya: Al, Fe,
Cr, Ni, Ti.
• Pasivitas disebabkan oleh
terbentuknya lapisan tipis
oksida yang menempel
sangat kuat di permukaan
logam.