Semiconductor

Manufacturing Technology
Michael
Michael Quirk
Quirk &
& Julian
Julian Serda
Serda
©
© October
October 2001
2001 by
by Prentice
Prentice Hall
Hall

Chapter 2

Characteristics of
Semiconductor Materials
Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology © 2001 by Prentice Hall
by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Objectives
After studying the material in this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Describe the atom, including valence shell, band theory and ions.
2. Interpret the periodic table with regards to main group elements and
explain how ionic and covalent bonds are formed.
3. State the three classes of materials and describe each one with regards to
current flow.
4. Explain resistivity, resistance, capacitance and discuss their importance
to wafer fabrication.
5. Describe pure silicon and give four reasons why it is the most common
semiconductor material.
6. Explain doping and how the trivalent and pentavalent dopant elements
make silicon a useful semiconductor material.
7. Explain p-type (acceptor) silicon and n-type (donor) silicon, how silicon
resistivity changes with the addition of a dopant, and the PN junction.
8. Discuss alternative semiconductor materials, with emphasis on gallium
arsenide.

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Atomic Structure

• Matter • Electrons
• Element – Electron Energy
– Nucleus – Valence Shells
• Proton – Energy-Band Theory
• Neutron – Ions
– Orbital Shell
• Electron
• Molecule
• Compound

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Elemen Dasar dari Atom Carbon
Proton
(muatan positif) - Atomic number
(jumlah proton)
Electron
(muatan negatif)
Nucleus (pusat atom ; berisi
- proton dan neutron)
C 6
Orbital shell
+ N
- + -
N +N +
N N +
+ N
- Elektron valensi
Neutron
(muatan netral)

- Lintasa / orbit
(lintasan atom
terluar)
Atom Carbon : nucleus berisi 6
protons (+) dan 6 neutrons . Enam
electrons (-) berada pada orbitnya
mengelilingi nucleus.

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.1 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Lintasan / Orbit Electron sebuah Atom

Q=2
P = 10
O = 32
N = 32
M = 18
L=8
K=2

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.2 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Lintasan Elektron dari Atom Sodium and Chlorine

-
- - - - - -
- - -
- - -
Na 11 - Cl 17 -

- - - - - -

- - - - - -
-
Sodium atom Chlorine atom

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.3 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Energy Band Gaps

Electron Energy Electron Energy Electron Energy

Conduction
Band Conduction
Band
Conduction Overlapping bands

Energy Gap
Band
Energy Gap

- little energy is
needed for
Valence Band conduction

Valence Band
Valence Band

Insulator Conductor Semiconductor

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.4 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Sodium Chloride
Ion A + dibentuk ketika sebuah Ion A - dibentuk ketika sebuah
atom kehilangan elektron atom memperoleh sebuah
elektron .
-
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
Na 11 - Cl 17 -
- - - - -
-
- - - - - -
-
+ Sodium ion - Chlorine ion

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.5 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Tabel Periodik

• Karakteristik dari Elemen Elemen

• Ikatan Ion
• Ikatan Kovalen

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 IA VIIIA
1 1.008

H The Periodic Table of the Elements 2 4.0026

He
Hydrogen IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA Helium

3 6.939 4 9.012 5 10.811 6 12.011 7 14.007 8 15.999 9 18.998 10 20.183

Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Florine Neon
Transition Metals
11 22.989 12 24.312 13 26.981 14 28.086 15 30.974 16 32.064 17 35.453 18 39.948
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium
IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

19 39.102 20 40.08 21 44.956 22 47.90 23 50.942 24 51.996 25 54.938 26 55.847 27 58.933 28 58.71 29 63.5430 65.37 31 69.72 32 72.59 33 74.922 34 78.96 35 79.909 36 83.80

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 85.47 38 87.62 39 88.905 40 91.22 41 92.906 42 95.94 43 99 44 101.07 45 102.91 46 106.4 47 107.8748 112.40 49 114.82 50 118.69 51 121.75 52 127.60 53126.904 54 131.30

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybde- TechnitiumRuthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
num
55 132.90 561137.34 57 138.91 72 178.49 73 180.95 74 183.85 75 186.2 76 190.2 77 192.2 78 195.09 79 196.96780 200.59 81 204.37 82 207.19 83 208.98 84 210 85 210 86 222

Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon

87 223 88 226 89 227 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
Nonmetals
Fr Ra Ac Rf Ha Sg Uns Uno Une Uun
Francium Radium Actinium
Metalloids
(semimetals)
58 140.12 59 140.91 60 144.24 61 147 62 150.35 63 151.96 64 157.25 65 158.92 66 162.50 67 164.93 68 167.26 69 168.93 70 173.04 71 174.97

Lanthanides Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Praseodym- Neodym- Prome- Gadolin- Dyspro- Holmium
Cerium ium ium thium Samarium Europium ium Terbium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
sium
90 232.04 91 231 92 238.03 93 237 94 242 95 243 96 247 97 247 98 249 99 254 100 253 101 256 102 253 103 257
Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Procat- Califor- Einstein- Mendelev- Lawren-
Thorium inium Uranium Neptunium Plutoniu Americium Curium Berkelium nium ium Fermium ium Nobelium cium
m
Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.6 © 2001 by Prentice Hall
by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Kotak Element Dari Tabel Periodik

atomic number 6 12.01115 atomic weight

2.0 electronegativity
symbol
melting point (°C)* 3570 C
boiling point (°C) 3470 s. † acid-base
atomic radius (Å) 0.77 properties ‡
Carbon
* Based on carbon-12. ( ) indicates the most stable or best known isotope.
† s. indicates sublimation
‡ For representative oxides of group. Oxide is acidic if color is red, basic if color
is blue, and amphoteric if both colors are shown. Intensity of color indicates
relative strength.

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.7 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Characteristics of Chemicals used in Wafer Fabrication

Group Number Characteristics

IA  1 valence electron that is easily given up; low electronegativity
 Highly unstable
 Very reactive; explosive
 Forms ionic bonds
 Prefer not to use the metals in this group due to contamination issues
IIA  2 valence electrons
 Somewhat unstable
 Quite reactive
 Prefer not to use metals in this group
IIIA  3 valence electrons
 Dopant elements (primarily B) added to semiconductor material
 Common interconnect conductor material (Al)
IVA  4 valence electrons
 Semiconductor materials
 Forms covalent bonds

Continued on next slide

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Table 2.1 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Characteristics of Chemicals used in Wafer Fabrication
(continued)
Group Characteristics
Number
VA  5 valence electrons
 Dopant elements (primarily P and As)
VIA  6 valence electrons
VIIA  7 valence electrons; readily accepts electrons; high electronegativity
 Corrosive
 Very reactive
 Forms ionic bonds
 Useful in some semiconductor application; dangerous etching and cleaning
compounds
VIIIA  8 valence electrons
 Stable; nonreactive
 Inert gas
 Safe to use in semiconductor manufacturing
IB  Best metal conductors
 Cu is replacing Al as primary interconnect conductor material
IVB – VIB  Refractory (high melting temperature) metals commonly used in semiconductor
manufacturing to improve metallization (especially Ti, W, Mo, Ta, and Cr)
 Reacts well with silicon to form stable compound with good electrical
characteristics

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Table 2.1 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Ikatan Ion NaCl

Cl-

Na+

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.8 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Ikatan Kovalen HCl

H + Cl HCl
-
-
- -
-
- - -
Hydrogen atom H 1 - Cl 17 - Chlorine
atom
- - -

- - - -
Electron shared between -
two atoms to form a
covalent bond.

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.9 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Classifying Materials

• Conductors
• Insulators
• Semiconductors

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Electrical Current Flow

e-

Copper wires provide connections

that allow electrons to flow from
the - terminal, through the filament e- e-
inside the lamp, and back into the
+ terminal of the battery.

6 Volt
Battery
e-

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.10 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Flow of Free Electrons in Copper
One electron in
the valence ring
Copper atom -
-
-
Maximum # Actual # - -
Shell #e- per shell e- per shell -
-
-
-
K 2 2
L 8 8
- - - - -
M 18 18 -
- Cu 29
N 32 1
Total # 60 29 - - - - -
K
- - - -
L
-
-
- M -
N

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.11 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 How Sizes Affect Resistance

Low Resistance High Resistance

L
R=
A

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.12 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Adding an Impurity to Water to
Improve its Conductivity

e-

e-

e-
+ -

e- 6 Volt
Battery
Na+ Cl-
Sodium and chlorine
ions from ordinary
table salt provide
electrical path for H 2O
current flow in
water.

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.13 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Basic Capacitor Structure

dielectric
(glass)
conductor Formula for Capacitance
(metal plate)
conductor KA
(metal plate) C =
S
wire
connection
K, dielectric constant
wire connection in farads/cm
A, plate area in cm2
S, spacing between
plates in cm

Schematic symbol
for Capacitor

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.14 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Battery Charges a Capacitor

1.5 V (-) Negative

(+) Positive charged plate
charged
plate
e-
e-
e-
Switch
electrostatic
e- field

Battery
1.5 V
e-

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.15 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Capacitor Holds a Charge

1.5 V (-) Negative charged

plate

(+) Positive charged plate

Electrostatic
field

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.16 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Low-k Dielectric Material

Metal 2
Capacitance Dielectric material*
Metal 1

* Low K dielectric reduces

capacitance between metal layers.

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.17 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Silicon

• Pure Silicon
• Why Use Silicon?
• Doped Silicon
– Dopant Materials
– n-type Silicon
– p-type Silicon
– Resistivity of Doped Silicon
• pn Junctions

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Group IVA Elemental Semiconductors

Semiconductors

Group IVA

C, Carbon 6

Si, Silicon 14

Ge, Germanium 32

Sn, Tin 50

Pb, Lead 82

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.18 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Covalent Bonding of Pure Silicon

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Silicon atoms share valence electrons

to form insulator-like bonds.

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.19 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 SiO2 on Silicon Wafer

Silicon dioxide (SiO2)

Silicon wafer

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.20 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Doping of Silicon
Deposition Step Drive-in & Diffusion Step

dopant dispenser

wafer substrate Activation

dopant layer Step
diffusion of dopant
atoms through silicon Si Si PP

wafer PP Si Si

Si Si P

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.21 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Silicon Dopants

Acceptor Impurities Semiconductor Donor Impurities

Group III (p-type) Group IV Group V (n-type)

Boron 5 Carbon 6 Nitrogen 7

Aluminum 13 Silicon 14 Phosphorus 15

Gallium 31 Germanium 32 Arsenic 33

Indium 49 Tin 50 Antimony 51

* Items underlined are the most commonly used in silicon-based IC manufacturing.

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.22 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Electrons in N-Type Silicon with Phosphorus Dopant

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si P Si Excess electron (-)

Si P Si Si Si Phosphorus atom
serves as n-type
dopant
Si Si Si P Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Donor atoms provide excess electrons

to form n-type silicon.

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.23 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Conduction in n-Type Silicon

Positive terminal from

power supply

Negative terminal
from power supply
o n Flow
t r
El e c

Free electrons flow toward

positive terminal.

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.24 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Holes in p-Type Silicon with Boron Dopant

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si B Si + Hole

Boron atom serves

Si B Si Si Si as p-type dopant

Si Si Si B Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Acceptor atoms provide a deficiency

of electrons to form p-type silicon.

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.25 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Conduction in p-Type Silicon
Positive terminal from
voltage supply

Negative terminal
from voltage supply n Flow
tro
Elec
ow
ol e Fl
H

-Electrons flow toward

positive terminal

+Holes flow toward

negative terminal

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.26 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Silicon Resistivity Versus Dopant Concentration
1021

1020

Dopant Concentration (atoms/cm3) 1019

1018

1017
n-type p-type
1016

1015

1014

1013
10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103
Electrical Resistivity (ohm-cm)
Redrawn from VLSI Fabrication Principles, Silicon and Gallium Arsenide, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.27 © 2001 by Prentice Hall
by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Cross Section of Planar pn Junction

p-type Si n-type Si

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Figure 2.28 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Alternative Semiconductor Materials

Comparison of Some Physical Properties for Semiconductor Materials

Property Si Ge GaAs SiO2
Melting point 1700
1412 937 1238
(C) (approx.)
Atomic Weight 28.09 72.60 144.63 60.08
Atomic Density
3 4.99 x1022 4.42x1022 2.21x1022 2.3x1022
(atoms/cm )
Energy Band 8
Gap (eV) 1.11 0.67 1.40
(approx.)

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology Table 2.3 © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda
 Chapter 2 Review

• Summary 41
• Key Terms 41
• Review Questions 42
• References 42

Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology © 2001 by Prentice Hall

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda