C#7

SOLUTIONS & ELECTROLYTES

B Y: A B B H U T T O
TCS- JINNAH CAMPUS

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 SOLUTION
SOLUTION &
& ELECTROLYTES
ELECTROLYTES

• Solution
A homogenous mixture of different chemical substances which has uniform chemical
composition throughout & shows uniform physical characteristics

• In a solution there are Solute & Solvent.

• Solute is a substance which is going to be dissolved

• Solvent is a substance which dissolve solute.

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 TYPES
TYPES OF
OF SOLUTION
SOLUTION

Solute Solvent
Gas Gas Air (Mixture of different gases)
Gas Liquid Carbonated soft drinks (Ammonia dissolved in water)
Gas Solid Hydrogen gas dissolved over Palladium metal
Liquid Gas Cloud (water vapors in air)
Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water, water in milk
Liquid Solid Mercury in sodium, water in jelly powder
Solid Gas Smoke (Carbon particles in air)
Solid Liquid Sugar in water
Solid Solid Alloys such as Brass, Bronze & Steel
Brass (copper & Zinc)
Bronze (Copper & Tin)
Steel (Carbon & Iron)

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 FORMATION
FORMATION OF
OF VALENCY
VALENCY

Poly-atomic Ions
Hydroxide Ions (OH)-
Sulfate Ion (SO4)2-
Nitrate Ion (NO3)3-
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sodium Chloride NaCl  Na+ + Cl-
Copper Sulfate CuSO4  Cu2+ + (SO4)2-
Hydrochloric Acid HCl  H+ + Cl-

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 ELECTROLYSIS
ELECTROLYSIS

Electrolysis is the passage of electricity through solutions with the help of

electrolytes.
Electrolytes can be Acids, Salts & Bases.

Electrolytes can be dissociated into positive and negative ions, which run
towards the opposite charged electrodes which results in potential and
conduction of electric current.

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 ELECTROLYSIS
ELECTROLYSIS

Electrolyte: NaCl
NaCl  Na+ + Cl-
+ _
White  Na+
Black  Cl-
Positive Electrode  ANODE

Negative Electrode  CATHODE

Positive IONS  Cations

Negative Ions  Anions

ANODE ATTRACT ANIONS

CATHODE ATTRACT CATIONS

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 CONCENTRATION
CONCENTRATION OF
OF SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS

Concentration of solution can be expressed by two ways in-terms of their

chemical units.
• Molar Concentration (M)
• Molal Concentration (m)

Molar concentration is often referred to as Molarity (M)

Molal concentration is often referred to as Molality (m)

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 CONCENTRATION
CONCENTRATION OF
OF SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS

Molar Concentration OR Molarity-(M)

• Molar concentration is the number of moles of solute contained in 1 dm3 or liter of
solution.
For example: 1 molar solution of Na2CO3 contains 106 grams of
Na2CO3 per dm3 of solution
– Na = 23, O= 16, C= 12

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 CONCENTRATION
CONCENTRATION OF
OF SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS

Molal Concentration OR Molality - (m)

• Molal concentration is the number of moles of solute contained in 1 kilogram of
solvent
– For Example: 1 molal solution (m) of NaCl contains: 58.5 g of NaCl dissolved
in 1kg (1000 grams)of water.

– 0.5 molal solution of Na2CO3 contains _________ g of Na2CO3 per kg of water.

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 CONCENTRATION
CONCENTRATION OF
OF SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS

1. 1 molar solution of CuSO4 contains _______ grams of CuSO4 per ____ of solution.

2. 2 molar solution of CuSO4 contains _______ grams of CuSO4 per ____ of solution.

3. 1 molal solution of H2SO4 contains _______ grams of H2SO4 per _______ of Solvent.

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 CONCENTRATION
CONCENTRATION OF
OF SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS

1. 1 molar solution of CuSO4 contains _______ grams of CuSO4 per ____ of solution.
– CuSO4 mass  160 grams so, it contains 160 grams of CuSO4 per dm3 of solution

2. 2 molar solution of CuSO4 contains _______ grams of CuSO4 per ____ of solution.
– CuSO4 mass  160 grams so, it contains 320 grams of CuSO4 per dm3 of solution

3. 1 molal solution of H2SO4 contains _______ grams of H2SO4 per _______ of Solvent.
– H2SO4 mass  98 grams so, it contains 98 grams of H2SO4 per kilograms of solution.
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 HYDROLYSIS
HYDROLYSIS

pH
• It is the measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution or a substance
• It can be tested by pH scale as well as indicators (litmus, methyl orange etc.)
• pH scale consists of 14 points.
– 0-6 Acid
– 7 Neutral
– 8-14 Base /Alkaline

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 HYDROLYSIS
HYDROLYSIS

Some Common Acids

Hydrochloric AcidHCl
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4
Nitric AcidHNO3
Ethanoic Acid CH3CO2H
Find The similarity in Acids !!!!!
Some Common Bases
Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
Potassium Hydroxide KOH
Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2

Find The similarity in Bases !!!!! 13

 HYDROLYSIS
HYDROLYSIS

Acids
• Those group of chemicals which posses H+ concentration.
Greater H+ ions  Strong acids
Less H+ ions  Weak acids
Bases
• Those group of chemicals which posses OH- concentration.
Greater OH+ ions  Strong Base
Less OH+ ions  Weak Base
 HYDROLYSIS
HYDROLYSIS

Is there any relationship b/w Strong/Weak Acids &

Conduction of electricity (from solutions).
If so, then which one
 HYDROLYSIS
HYDROLYSIS

“The reaction of cation or anion (or both) with water so as to change its
pH is called as Hydrolysis”
Hydrolysis occurs only when a change in pH takes place

Example-1 Aqueous Solution of NH4Cl & water

NH4Cl (aq.) + HOH (l)  NH4OH (aq.) + HCl (aq.)
Weak Base Strong Acid
• NH4Cl forms strong acid & weak base
• The solution contains higher concentration of H+ ions
• The pH of water is changer towards Acidic
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 HYDROLYSIS
HYDROLYSIS

Example-2 Aqueous Solution of Na2CO3 & water

Na2CO3 (aq.) + HOH (l)  2NaOH (aq.) + H2CO3 (aq.)
Strong BaseWeak Acid
• Na2CO3 forms strong base & weak acid
• The solution contains higher concentration of OH- ions
• The pH of water is changer towards Basic

Hydrolysis doesn’t occur in Sodium Chloride

• Upon reaction with water it doesn’t change the pH of water.
• The aqueous solution of NaCl is neutral

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 SALTS
SALTS

1. What is meant by SALTS ???

Give any examples !

2. What is Ionization??

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 SALTS
SALTS

When acid reacts with metals, bases & carbonates – A salt is produced
Name of Salt depend upon the Acid we have used.
CHLORIDE SULFATE NITRATE

Hydrochloric acid Sulfuric Acid Nitric Acid

Ionization refers to “breaking of compound into its respective ions (positive &
negative).

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 THEORY OF IONIZATION

INTRODUCTION

• The behavior of aqueous solution of electrolytes is found to be different from the non-
electrolytes

• Different solutions of acids, bases & salts have different abilities to conduct electricity.

• The relation between the deviation in properties & electrical conductance is also noted.

• The theory of ionization explains the phenomenon of electrolysis

• This was given by Swedish Chemist Svante August Arrhenius in 1880

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 THEORY OF IONIZATION

A. Electrolytes contains electrically charged particles called as Ions

• These charges are Positive ions & Negative Ions
• Positive Ions are derived from  Metals
• Negative ions are derived from  Non- metals
• Number of electrical charge (carried by ion) = Valency of corresponding atom

B. Molecules of electrolytes (Acids, Bases & Salts) dissociate into oppositely charged
ions on dissolution in water.

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THEORY OF IONIZATION

H2SO4  2H+ + SO42-

NaCl  Na+ + Cl-

Separate them in positive & negative ions !!!!

HCl  _________

NaOH  __________

H2CO3  ___________

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THEORY OF IONIZATION

H2SO4  2H+ + SO42-

NaCl  Na+ + Cl-

Separate them in positive & negative ions !!!!

HCl  H+ + Cl-

NaOH  Na+ + OH-

H2CO3  2H+ + CO32-

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 THEORY OF IONIZATION

•C.  Positive charges = negative charges  So as to remains solution neutral

H2SO4  2H+ + SO42-

NaCl  Na+ + Cl-

NaOH  Na+ + OH-

H2CO3  2H+ + CO32

D. In solutions the ions are in disorderly motion – thus ionization is a reversible process- because
the ions may collide to give unionized molecules

H2SO4 2H+ + SO42-

NaCl Na+ + Cl-

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 THEORY OF IONIZATION

E. They extent of ionization (degree of ionization) depends upon the nature of electrolyte.
– Strong electrolytes (NaCl, HCl etc.)  Ionize completely in water / dissolve 100%
– Weak electrolytes (AgCl, Acetic Acid)  Ionize slightly in water / dissolve partially

F. Ionization isn’t affected by the electric current

– When current is passed the ions migrate towards apposite charged electrodes (Cations on cathode
& Anions on Anode)

G. The dissociation of electrolyte depends upon 1) nature of electrolyte 2) degree of dilution 3)

Temperature

H. The electrical conductivity depends upon the 1) Number of ions present in the solution 2) Speed of
ions. 25
 OXIDATION NUMBER

“The formal charge on the atom in the compound or ion under consideration is known as
oxidation number or state”

In oxidation numbers  All the compounds are considered to be “ionic compounds”

Guiding Rules
1. The oxidation number of all the elements in free state is zero
Bromine = Br20 Nitrogen = N20
Sodium = Na0 Phosphorus= P0

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 OXIDATION NUMBER

2. In compounds:
More electronegative elements  Assigned Negative Oxidation Numbers
Less electronegative elements  Assigned Positive Oxidation Numbers3
H1+ Cl1-
3. In a neutral species, the sum of oxidation numbers is zero
2+ NO2-  +2-2 = 0
1+ HBr1-  +1-1=0
4. The oxidation number of oxygen in most of its compounds is 2.
2+ SrO2-
(1+)2 H2O2-
4+CO2(2-)2
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 OXIDATION NUMBER

5. The oxidation number of Hydrogen when combined with non-metals is 1+

-4 CH4(1+)4
3- NH3(1+)3
1+ HF1-
The oxidation number of hydrogen when combined with metal of low Electronegativity is
1+ NaH1-
2+CaH2(1-)2
1+KH1-

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 OXIDATION NUMBER

6. The oxidation number of fluorine in its compounds is always 1-.

It is most electronegative element. It can’t form more than 1 bond
2+ OF2(1-)2
6+ SF6(1-)6
1+ ClF1-
The oxidation number of other halogen in binary compounds is 1-
1+KBr1-
1+ NaCl1-
2+MgCl2(1-)2
Few exceptions:
Hypochlorous acid (1+H 2- O 1+Cl)
Chlorous Acid H 3+Cl (2-)2O2
1+ 29
 OXIDATION NUMBER

7. In poly atomic ions, the sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms present in them equals to
the ionic charge.
5+ (2-)4

P O43-

4+ (2-)3

C O32-

6+ (2-)4

S O42-

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 OXIDATION NUMBER

Group-I, II & III elements show the oxidation state of 1+, 2+ & 3+ respectively

Group-1 K1+ Cl

Group-2 Ca2+ F2

Group-3 Al3+ Br3

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 OXIDATION NUMBER

QUESTION-1: Give the oxidation number of tin in SnCl2 & SnCl4

Since the oxidation number of each chlorine is 1-
Hence total negative charge in SnCl2 is 2-
To balance the positive & negative oxidation number  The oxidation number of Sn must be
2.

Sn Cl2(1-)2
2+ (Sn=2)
In SnCl4 the oxidation number of Sn = +4

Sn Cl4(1-)4
2+ (Sn =4)

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 OXIDATION NUMBER

QUESTION 2 Give the oxidation number of Nitrogen in HNO3

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 OXIDATION NUMBER

QUESTION 2 Give the oxidation number of Nitrogen in HNO3

In HNO3 each of the three oxygen has 2-. So, the total would be 6-
Since Hydrogen is 1+

So nitrogen should be 5+

H1+ N5+ O3(2-)3

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 OXIDATION NUMBER

QUESTION 3 Determine the oxidation number of S in SO32-

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 OXIDATION-REDUCTION
OXIDATION-REDUCTION
REACTIONS
REACTIONS

OXIDATION
• It is a process in which there is lose of electron
• It is a process in which oxidation number of an element is increased.

REDUCTION
• It is a process in which there is gain of electron
• It is a process in which oxidation number of an element is decreased.

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 OXIDATION-REDUCTION
OXIDATION-REDUCTION
REACTIONS
REACTIONS

Iron atom loses 2 electrons – loss of electron = Oxidation

Fe  Fe2+ + 2e- (Oxidation)

Chlorine gains 2 electrons – gain of electron = Reduction

Cl2 + 2e  2Cl-1 (Reduction)

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 INDICATORS
INDICATORS

• Indicators are used to indicate the nature of solution – Acidic or basic ?

They themselves are the weak acid or weak base -They indicate by different designated colors.

Indicator Color in Acid Color in Base Color in Neutral

Litmus Red Blue Purple

Methyl Orange Red Yellow Orange

Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink Colorless

Universal Indicator Red Purple Green

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 REDOX
REDOX REACTIONS
REACTIONS

REDOX REACTIONS  Those reactions that undergoes

Oxidation & reduction reactions.
OilRig

O ilR ig
Oxidation is losing Reduction is gaining process

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 EQUATION
EQUATION FORMING
FORMING

What is meant by Mono-atomic & Di-atomic

atoms !
Give any 3 examples of each

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 MONOATOMIC
MONOATOMIC &
& DIATOMIC
DIATOMIC

Mono-atomic Those elements which are made up of 1 atom only & are present at room
temperature.
E.g. Carbon (C), Sodium (Na), Calcium (Ca)

Di-atomic  Those elements which are made up of 2 same atoms

E.g. Nitrogen N2
Hydrogen H2
Fluorine F2
Chlorine Cl2
Bromine Br2 Iodine I2 Oxygen O2

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 STATE
STATE SYMBOLS
SYMBOLS

What can be state symbols in chemical equations ?

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 STATE
STATE SYMBOLS
SYMBOLS

State symbols show the physical state of reactant &

product at room temperature !

They are s (solid), l (liquid), g (gas ), aq(aqueous)

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 EQUATION
EQUATION MAKING
MAKING

Write the balanced equation of formation of water

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 EQUATION
EQUATION MAKING
MAKING

H2 + O2  H2O
2H2 + O2  2H2O
2H2 + O2  2H2O
2H + O  H2O

Hydrogen + oxygen  water

2H2 + O2  2H2O

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 EQUATION
EQUATION MAKING
MAKING

Write the balanced equation of formation of sodium

chloride.

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 EQUATION
EQUATION MAKING
MAKING

2Na+ Cl2  2NaCl

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 EQUATION
EQUATION MAKING
MAKING

Reaction of sodium hydroxide & hydrochloric acid

to form sodium chloride & water

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 EQUATION
EQUATION MAKING
MAKING

Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid sodium chloride + water

NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O

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 EQUATION
EQUATION MAKING
MAKING

Potassium hydroxide react with nitric acid to form

potassium nitrate & water

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 EQUATION
EQUATION MAKING
MAKING

KOH + HNO3  KNO3 + H2O

KOH  K+ + OH-
HNO3 H+ + NO3-

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 EQUATION
EQUATION MAKING
MAKING

1. Magnesium + Sulfuric Acid  ?

Mg + H2SO4  MgSO4 + H2
H2SO4 2H+ + SO4-2

2. Magnesium + Hydro Chloric Acid  ?

Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2

Magnesium + Nitric Acid  ? 52

 BALANCING
BALANCING OXIDATION
OXIDATION REDUCTION
REDUCTION
EQUATIONS
EQUATIONS
 Only those reactants & products are balanced that contain the elements that undergoes a
change in oxidation state.
 So, only those reactants & products are balanced which are actually oxidized or reduced.
 Molecular equation is transformed into ionic equations by following steps.

A. Ionic substances are written in ionic form only when they are dissolved
• In solid state NaCl is written as combined form.
• In solution or molten state NaCl can be written as Na+ + Cl-.
B. Partially ionized substances are written in ionized form only.
– Water & weak acids (Nitrous acid HNO2 & Sulphurous Acid H2SO3) can be written in molecular
form
– Strong Acids (HCl, HNO3) can be written in ionized form.
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 BALANCING
BALANCING OXIDATION
OXIDATION REDUCTION
REDUCTION
EQUATIONS
EQUATIONS

Rules for Balancing by Ion Electron Method

1. Write a skeleton equation. [which include those reactants & products that contain the
elements that undergoes the oxidation state]
2. Transform the molecular skeleton equation into ionic form [Skip this step if the given
equation is given in the ionic form].
3. The ionic equation is split into two partial equations i.e. oxidation & reduction equations
4. Balance each partial equation in-terms of atoms.
1. In neutral or acidic medium H2O & H+ ions are added for balancing oxygen & hydrogen.

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 BALANCING
BALANCING OXIDATION
OXIDATION REDUCTION
REDUCTION
EQUATIONS
EQUATIONS
5. Balance the charge in each partial equation by adding electrons either the left side or right
side of equation.
Electrons are added to left in partial equation for reduction
Electrons are added to right in the partial equation for oxidation reaction

6. Multiply each partial equation by a number so that the electrons in both the partial equations
becomes equal in number.

7. Add two partial equations after cancelling the electrons. In the sum equation. Cancel out any
species common to both sides.

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