ALGEBRAIC PROPERTIES OF MATRICES,

INVERTIBLE MATRICES

Week 3
SKILLS OBJECTIVES
1. Know the arithmetic properties of matrix operations.
2. Know the properties of zero matrices.
3. Know the properties of identity matrices.
4. Recognize when two matrices are inverses of each other.
5. Determine whether a 2x2 matrix is invertible.
6. Solve a linear system of two equations in two unknowns
whose coefficient matrix is invertible.
7. Prove basic properties involving invertible matrices
8. Know the properties of matrix transpose and its relationship
with invertible matrices.
9. Solve real life problems using matrix inversion.
•  illustration of the associative law for matrix multiplication,
An
consider
A= B= C=
Then AB= = and BC = =
Thus, (AB)C = =
And A(BC) = =

So (AB)C=A(BC)
•• In
  real arithmetic, it is always true that ab=ba which is called
the commutative law for multiplication. In matrix arithmetic,
however, the equality of AB and BA can fail for three possible
reasons
1. AB may be defined and BA may not. (eg. If A is 2x3 and B is
3x4)
2. AB and BA may be both defined, but they may have different
sizes (eg. If A is 2x3 an B is 3x2)
3. AB and BA may be both defined and have the same size, but
the two matrices mat be different.
Example.
Consider the matrices
A= and B= multiplying gives
AB= and BA= thus ABBA
•  

• Since we know that commutative law of real arithmetic is not

valid in matrix arithmetic, there are other rules that fail as
well. For example, consider the following two laws of
arithmetic:
• If ab=bc and b
• If ab = 0, then at least one of the factors on the left is 0.
If A is a square matrix, and if matrix B of the same size can be
found such that AB = BA, then A is said to be invertible (or
nonsingular) and B is called the inverse of A. If no such matrix B
can be found, then A is said to be singular.
If A is any m x n matrix, then

Remarks:
The relationship AB = BA = I is not changed by interchanging A an B, so if A is
invertible and B is the inverse of A, then it is also true that B is invertible, and
A is an inverse of B. Thus, when
AB = BA = I
we say that A and B are inverses of one another
•  
Example: Failure of cancellation law
Consider the matrices
A=, B=, C=
AB = AC =
• Although A of the equation AB = BC would lead to the
incorrect solution that B = C. Thus the cancellation law does
not hold.
IDENTITY MATRICES
• A square matrix with 1’s on the main diagonal and zeros
elsewhere is called an identity matrix.
•  
Example: An invertible matrix
Let A = and B = then
AB= = = I
BA = = = I
Thus, A and B are matrices and each is an inverse of the other.
If B and C are both inverses of both Matrix A, then B=C.
Proof: Since B is an inverse of A, we have BA = I. Multiplying both
sides on the right by C gives (BA)C = IC = C. But it is also true that
(BA)C = B(AC) = BI = B,so C = B.
As a consequence, if A is invertible, then its inverse will be
denoted by
•   Properties of Inverses:
Other
Theorem: If A is invertible and n is a nonnegative integer, then
(a) is invertible and = A
(b) is invertible and =
Example:
1. Let A = find (a) .
2. Find p(A) for p(x) = -2x-3 and A = .
Hint: use -2A-3I
3. Use the given information to find A.
=
Other properties of Inverse Matrices
Elementary Matrices and finding the inverse of a matrix
•   defined three elementary row operations on a matrix A:
We
1. Multiply a row by a nonzero constant c.
2. Interchange two rows.
3. Add a constant c times one row to another.
If we let B be the matrix that results from A by performing one of
the operations in this list, then the matrix A can be recovered from
B by performing the corresponding operation in the following list:
4. Multiply one row by 1/c.
5. Interchange the same two rows.
6. If B resulted by adding c times row 1 () of A to row 2 ( then add
–c times to .
It follows that if B is obtained from A by performing a sequence of
elementary row operation, then there is a second sequence of
elementary row operations which when applied to B recovers A.
 Elementary Matrices and a Method for finding A-1
•  
Definition:
Matrices A and B are said to be row equivalent if either (hence
each) can be obtained from the other by a sequence of
elementary row operations.

Definition:
A matrix E is called an elementary matrix if it can be obtained
from an identity matrix by performing a single elementary row
operation.

Theorem: If the elementary matrix E results from performing a

certain row operation on Im and if A is an matrix, then the
product EA is the matrix that results when this same row
operation is performed on A.
 Example

•  
Consider the matrix A = and the elementary matrix E = which
results from adding 3 times the first row of to the third row. The
product EA = is precisely the matrix that results when we add 3
times the first of row A to the third row. If E is an elementary
matrix that results from performing an elementary row
operation on an identity matrix I, then there is a second
elementary row operation which when applied to E produces I
back again.
 Inverse Operations
•   in the table are inverse operations
Given
Row operations on I that produces E Row operations on E that reproduces I
Multiply row i by c Multiply row i by
Interchange
Interchange rows
rows II and
and jj Interchange
Interchange rows
rows II and
and jj
Add
Add cc times
times row
row II to
to row
row jj Add
Add –c
–c times
times row
row ii to
to row
row jj

An elementary row operation is applied to the 2x2 identity

matrix to obtain an elementary matrix E, then E is restored by
applying the inverse operations.

Multiply Multiply
 Row Operations and Inverse Row Operations

•  
Interchange the 1st and 2nd rows Interchange the 1st and 2nd row

Add 5 times the 2nd row Add -5 times the 2nd row
to the first row to the first row
 The Inverse of a Matrix
•   Theorem: Elementary matrices are invertible and the
inverse is also an elementary matrix
Proof:)-1 =[I:
)-1 =[I:

)-1 =[I:
Example.
= and =satisfy
= )= thus
()-1 =
•  
Equivalent Statements:

If A is an nxn matrix, then the following statements are equivalent,

that is, all true or all false.
(a) A is invertible
(b) Ax=0 has only the trivial solution.
(c) The reduced row echelon form of A is .
(d) A is expressible as a product of elementary matrices.
•Proof:
  Prove the equivalence by establishing the chain of
implications.
(a)
(a) : Assume A is invertible and let x0 be any solution of
Ax=0. Multiplying both sides of this equation by the
matrix A-1 gives A-1(Ax) = A-10, or (A-1A)x0 = 0 or
Ix0 = 0, or x0 = 0. thus Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution.
(b): Let Ax =0 be the matrix form of the system

and assume that the system has only the trivial solution.
Solve using Gauss-Jordan Elimination.
•• (b)
  The reduced row echelon form of the augmented matrix will be x1
=0
x2 =0 (2)

xn =0
Thus the augmented matrix

For (1) can be reduced to the augmented matrix

for (2) by a sequence of elementary row operations. Disregarding the

zeros at the last column , we see that the rref of A = In.
•• (c )Assume that the reduced row echelon form of A is In so that A can be
 reduced to In by a finite sequence of elementary row operations. By the
Theorem ( If the elementary matrix E results from performing a
certain row operation on Im and if A is an matrix, then the product
EA is the matrix that results when this same row operation is
performed on A), each of these operations can be accomplished by
multiplying on the left by an appropriate elementary matrix. Thus we can
find elementary matrices E1, E2, …, Ek such that EkE2E1A =In (3)
By the theorem Elementary matrices are invertible and the inverse is also
an elementary matrix, E1, E2,…Ek are invertible. Multiplying both sides of
the equation (3) by Ek-1 on the left successively by Ek-1,…, E2-1, E1-1, we
obtain
A = E1-1E2-1 Ek-1 In= E1-1E2-1 Ek-1 (4)
By this theorem , equation (4) expresses A as a product of elementary
matrices.
•  If A is a product of elementary matrices, then from the
(d)
theorem is invertible and = A and that Elementary matrices are
invertible, the matrix A is a product of invertible matrices and
hence is invertible.
• Matrix
  Inversion using Elementary Row Operation

To develop the algorithm, assume that the given matrix is

invertible n x n matrix. In EkE2E1A =In, the elementary matrices
execute a sequence of row operations that reduce A to In. If we
multiply both sides of this equation on the right by A-1 and
simplify, we obtain A-1 = In EkE2E1In.
This equation tells us that the same sequences of row operations
that reduces A to In, will transform In to A-1.
 Inversion Algorithm

•Given
  an matrix :
1. Form the .
2. Apply elementary row operation to obtain the RREF
of the matrix in step 1.
3. The preceding step produces a matrix
i) if , then
ii) ii) if , then has a row that is entirely 0, is singular and does
not exist.
 Example

•  
Example: Find the Inverse of A = using row operations.
Ans. =
•   Finding the Inverse of a 2x2 Invertible Matrix
The matrix
A= is invertible if and only if ad-bc 0, in which case the inverse is
given by the formula
=
The quantity ad-bc is called the determinant of the 2x2 matrix A
and is denoted by
det (A) = ad – bc or alternatively
= ad - bc
Example: Determine whether the matrix is invertible, if so, find its
inverse. Check using the property A=A= I.
A= B=
•  • Solution of a linear system by Matrix Inversion
Let u = ax + by
v = cx + dy
An alternative approach is to express the equations by a single
matrix equation = which can be written as

If we assume that the 2x2 matrix is invertible ( i.e. ad-bc 0), then we
can multiply through on the left by the inverse and rewrite the
equation as
= which simplifies as

= or b= X
• PROPERTIES OF INVERSES
•  
Properties of Transposes
Theorem: If the sizes of the matrices are such that the stated
operations can be performed, then:
(a)
(b) = +
(c) = -
(d)(k = k
(e)
(f) If A and are invertible, then
=
•  
Example:
1.Use x b= X to find the unique solution of the given linear
system.
(a) 3x -2y = -1 (b) + 2+3 = 5
4x + 5y = 3 2+ 5+3 =3
+ 8 =17
2. Assuming all the matrices are nxn and invertible, solve for D.

Ans. D = CB
3. Simplify

Ans. C
(Grouping/Collaborative Work)
CRYPTOGRAPHY (enciphering and deciphering)
BEST APPROXIMATION, LEAST SQUARES
LEAST SQUARES FITTING TO DATA
Summary
 Cryptography
• A cryptography is a message written according
to a secret code ( the Greek word kryptos
means “hidden”)
• This section describes a method of using
matrix multiplication to encode and decode
messages.
• To encode a message, choose an nxn
invertible matrix A and multiply the uncoded
row matrices (on the right) by A to obtain
coded row matrix.
 Cryptography
http://www.supermath.info/math321.pdf
 References
• Elementary Linear Algebra with Supplemental Applications
and Wiley Plus Set 11th Ed., Anton

• Lecture Notes for Linear Algebra by James S. Cook Liberty

University Department of Mathematics and Physics Fall 2009
http://www.supermath.info/math321.pdf