CARIBBEAN CULTURAL

EXPRESSION
Festivals and Music
 Culture and Caribbean Festivals
• The Caribbean region can be described as a
sphere of cultural variety.
• According to John Campbell, Caribbean
culture and cultural expressions are
transmissible and always evolving.
• Much of what we recognise today as
Caribbean culture is the legacy of our history
of colonialism, slavery and migration.
 Definitions of Culture
• The most important characteristic of culture is
that it is learned
• It is NOT innately, biologically or
physiologically acquired.
• As society evolves, so does culture,

• Therefore culture is not static.

Definition 1
• Sociologists Michael Haralambos and Martin
Holborn define culture as the whole way of life
found in a particular society.
• They contend that culture is learned through
socialization and is shared by members of a
society.
• There are different components to culture,
including norms and values.
– Norms are specific guides to action which define
acceptable and appropriate behaviour in particular
situations.
– Values are more general guidelines and are defined as
a belief that something is good and desirable.
Definition 2
• John J. Macionis and Ken Plummer note that
culture is the values, beliefs, behaviour and
material objects that constitute a people’s way of
life.

• Culture is composed of non-material and

material culture.
– Non-material culture is the intangible world of ideas
created by members of a society.

– Material culture constitutes the tangible things

created by members of a society.
• Caribbean culture can be viewed as a body of
learned behaviours common to the Caribbean
region, passed on from one generation to
another.

• Caribbean culture possesses it own norms,

mores, symbols, values, and customs.

• Oftentimes, culture, by itself is regionally

specific.
 Festivals
Carnival
• Carnival comes from the Latin for ‘Farewell to
meat’.
• Carnival varies from place to place as to season,
size and lavishness, but it is essentially a street
celebration in honour of particular holidays.
• Carnival is widely celebrated in the Caribbean,
including, Antigua, Grenada, Dominica and St.
Lucia.
 Carnivals - ect

• The best known carnival celebration is the Pre-

Lenten one in Trinidad.
• The Trinidad carnival brings together different
faucets of Trinidad’s society.
• It is also a mixture of African, European and Asian
influences.
• Calypso is the most popular Carnival music played
and steel pans and street parades are also featured.
 Carnivals cont
• The Trinidad Carnival is famous for its calypso
tents and the annual climatic road march.
• Many tourists attend the carnival annually and as
the attraction of carnival grew, so did its budget
which eventually featured lavish displays.
• As such, many complain that it is now so
commercialised that their culture might be slowly
eroding.
 Carnivals - cont
• Historically, the T&T carnival had two social streams,
the upper classes with masked balls and the lower
classes with their street parades.
• Pre- emancipation Carnival was highly segregated
• Early T&T carnival, by the upper class, featured
masquerade balls, fetes & house to house visits v
• The enslaved took advantage of the break to indulge
in the street parades.
• Their celebration called “Dame Lorraine masque”,
partly featured caricatures of the planters.
 Carnivals - cont
• Most writers agree that the Carnival commenced in
Trinidad and Tobago in the late 18th century.
• Carlton Ottley (1974): Carnival had come to
Trinidad sometime in the 1780’s with the arrival of
the flood of French immigrants.
• It is true that the Spaniards did celebrate with
disguise balls before but, the beginning of Carnival
may be said to be a product of those early French
men and women who sought refuge here towards
the close of the [18th] century.
 Carnivals - cont
• These French immigrants came to T&T to escape
the political conflict in the French Caribbean.
• Some argue that Carnival has religious symbolism
with French Catholicism & is tied to Easter/Lent
• Corey Gilkes (2003) contends that the Trinidad
Carnival emerged from West African festivals.
• On August 1, 1838, the Africans celebrated with
Camboulay: torchlight processions, loud music,
drumming, reinterpretations of African masking
representations of their treatment under slavery.
 Carnivals - cont
• Camboulay is derived from the Congo kambule meaning procession.
• Camboulay was made to coincide with the pre-Lenten Carnival.
• African Trinidadians appropriated the street Carnival adding to it
traditional masquerades such as the moko jumbie, derived from the
African memory.
• Reinterpretations of European characters were also featured.
• The African presence caused whites to street carnival.
• Anti-Carnival legislation came to bear on the celebrations. However,
they were vociferously protested.
• The Camboulay element of Carnival was suppressed but returned
with the celebration of J’Ouvert which featured characters drawn
from folklore.
 Carnivals - cont
• The African presence resulted in whites becoming
drawn to street carnival.
• Anti-Carnival legislation came to bear on the
celebrations. However, they were vociferously
protested.
• The Camboulay element of Carnival was
suppressed but returned with the celebration of
J’Ouvert which featured characters drawn from
folklore.
 Carnivals - cont
• Carnival was organized into competitions in the
early 1920s. The upper class returned to Carnival.
• Race & class differences were perpetuated in the
centres: Queen’s Park Savannah & Marine Square.
• Eric Williams’ added legitimacy in the 1950s as a
celebration of all things Creole.
• Carnival changed, with larger sophisticated bands.
• Costumes became expensive forcing many poorer
persons away from the celebration.
 Hosay/Hussay: Moharram in India
• During the 14th and 15th centuries an influx of
Iranian Shiite Muslims into India introduced the
observance of Moharram.
• It displayed personal mourning in public by
marching in processions, recalling the names of
Hasan and Hosain to the music of drums, and
self-flagellation.
• The Shias start building the tazias (taziya,
tadjah) on the first day of Moharram after
holding special consecration prayers.
• In India, both Sunni and Shiite Muslims
participated in Moharram. By the end of the
18th century the dominant Hindu culture also
began to penetrate Moharram.
• This led to the introduction of the float tazia –
an artistically designed replica of imaginary
tombs of Hasan and Hosain, as an integral part
of Moharram processions on the final day of
mourning.
• The tazia is built over nine days. The men
participate in the building while a mixed
congregation retells the story of the battle
and sings mercia (mourning songs).
 Hosay/Hussay in the Caribbean
• Observance of Moharram in the Caribbean was
initiated by the early indentured workers.
• Hosay was celebrated in Guyana, Trinidad, Jamaica,
Belize, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and Guadeloupe.
• Until the 1940s, Hosay invoked general religious
sentiments and devotion among the participants of
either religion who would avoid alcohol, sex and
other pleasures during the 10 days.
• In the nineteenth century, Moharram was observed
strictly according to the Islamic calendar and Indian
rituals and traditions.
• There was the belief that the martyred brothers
reappear and grant wishes.
• The building of the Hosay, special acts of sacrifice
during the festival period, and contributions of
food or money are considered acts of merit and
will bring good fortune to the worshipper.
• There were evening assemblies dominated by
Muslim men and women who would sing until
early morning.
• On the ninth night, tazias were assembled and it
was displayed to the public amidst drumming and
singing of mercias.
• The activities of the tenth day were heralded by
music on nagaras (called dholaks – which are beaten
with curved sticks called dankas) and tassas.
• The tazias were moved in an organized procession
along the pre-determined route to a “fair-ground” at
a river bank or sea shore.
• The procession is led by alamdars (mourners with
flags) and drummers, followed by the sword and stick
(gutka) fighters, the main body of mourners signing
“Hai Hosain” and then the tazia.
• At dusk, the tazias were sunk one by one in the river
or sea amidst sounds of the tassa, nagara and shouts
of Hai Hasan, Hai Hosain.  
• Despite its significance, Olive Senior argues
that Hosay has lost most of its religious
significance in countries such as Jamaica,
• “Hosay features the active participation of
many different religious and ethnic groups
other than Muslims, especially non-Indian
Creoles”.
• Most celebrants use the opportunity to recall
their ancestors who came to the Caribbean
rather than a religious affirmation of Islam.
 The Creolisation of Moharram
Explored
The creolisation of Moharram occurred because:
 The Muslim community in the Caribbean was
initially small.
 Inter-marriages among Indian Muslims and Hindus.
 Close bonds between Indians and Afro-Caribbean
people.
 Working together on sugar & banana plantations,
Afro-Caribbean & Indians came to better
understand each other
 Indians in time recognised that they had more in
common than with Afro-Caribbean people
Thus, the creolised Moharram involves:
 A name change from Moharram to Hosay
 Trinidad still adheres to the Muslim calendar,
 Secularisation has affected the date of the
observance in Jamaica.
 Entire communities becoming involved
 A shift from a religious event to a festive one.
 A change in the style of drumming
 Dancing which is much more altered.
 More emphasis on Drinking
 Interpreting creolisation as commercialisation.
 Jonkonnu
• Arguably at the beginning of the 18th century,
Jonkunnu (John Canoe, Jon Canoe and John Canou).
• It can be traced to the Christmas holidays when the
enslaved were given ‘free’ time to celebrate.
• This celebration featured music – drumming, dance
and costume/masks as well as some satirical mimicry.
• Though it is strong in Jamaica, it is in Bahamas that it is
most celebrated where it is popularly called Junkanoo.
• The festival also occurs in Belize (called Jankunu) and
North Carolina (John Canoe).
• It is celebrated also in Guyana, Bermuda & St. Kitts-
Nevis.
• It occurs anywhere between Christmas day and
New Year’s Day.
• In Belize, it is performed on Christmas and
Boxing Day while in the Bahamas it is celebrated
between December 26th and January 1.
• Richard Burton, Jonkunnu is first mentioned in
passing in 1707, by Hans Sloane and later by
Edward Long in 1774.
• According to Burton, Jonkunnu’s origins are
certainly African and until the latter eighteenth
century, it developed unimpeded by European
culture.
• Cassidy & Le Page contend that the term is a
combination of two Ewe words, dzono for sorcery
and kúnu for something deadly.
• There are also arguments that Jonkunnu, with its
African dance, has incorporated European
masquerade balls as a form of creolisation.
• Of note in Jamaica were the ‘set girls’
characteristic of the European influence on the
festival.
• Burton writes:
– “An African cultural form only belatedly subject to
surface creolisation, Jonkonnu functioned as the core
of the oppositional culture of Jamaican slaves,.”
• Most Jonkunnu performers are males.
• Participants frequently take to the streets with
music, mime and dance.
• In Jamaica Jonkunnu the main characters include
Pitchy-patchy, Actor Boy, Cow Head, Horse Head
and Devil.
• Other participants include Policeman, Belly-woman
and Wild Indian. Occasionally, a Bride and House
Head also feature.
• In Jamaica, participants would be attired in head
dresses, masks, pitchforks, batons, fans and other
items depending on the character.
• Shiny material such as mirrors was often added to
give costumes more oomph!
• Jonkunnu would be incomplete without the
dance of each character.
• Musical bands feature rattles and the gumbay
drum – an African instrument and the fife a
European instrument.
• This demonstrates the Creole nature of the
celebration.
 Calypso Music
• Calypso can be described as oral tradition, possessing
keen observation, inspired social commentary and
biting satire.
• Concentrated in Trinidad & Tobago & the Windward
islands, calypso is immensely popular in the entire
region and among the Caribbean Diaspora in North
America and the UK.
• Calypso music can be traced to the arrival of the
enslaved West Africans who used their own kind of
music and songs as a form of communication and
self-expression.
Many early calypsos were sung in French-
Creole patois by a singer called a griot.
The griot, who later became the chantuelle,
has in more recent times been called
calypsonian.
Calypso has West African roots and it is
believed that the term originates from the
Hausa word kaiso which means bravo or well
done.
Others believe that the term derives from the
Carib cariso – the war song of the Caribs.
During the period of enslavement, calypsos
were sung to jeer the enslavers.
During freedom, the calypsonian was someone who
acted as an advocate of the poor and disfranchised
 He would ridicule & reprimand the authority for their
inadequacies in social policies.
Those in power disapproved of the calypsonians.
The Mighty Gabby (born Anthony Carter) is one of
Barbados’ most prolific singer/performer.
One of Grenada’s and the Caribbean’s most popular
calysonian is the Mighty Sparrow. Sparrow, nee
Slinger Francisco.
Other widely acclaimed performers include Lord
Kitchener, Viper, Red Plastic Bag, Lord Beginner and
Lord Invader.
 Soca and Chutney
• Soca originated in Trinidad and Tobago
• It evolved from Calypso and had Chutney
influences
• Lord Shorty was a pioneer of Soca
• Chutney emerged in T&T, as a of calypso sung to
Indian traditional musical and partly in Hindi.
• It is an up-tempo, rhythmic song, accompanied by
the dholak, the harmonium and the dhantal.
• Chutney derived from traditional Indian songs.
 Reggae
• While it is not clear where the term reggae
originated, the rhythms emerged from Ska in the
1950s and Rock Steady in the 1960s.
• Reggae is recognised as different from its
predecessors because of its spiritual emphasis.
• The lyrics of reggae typically deal with poverty,
love, politics and Rastafari.
• There are different forms of reggae including
Roots reggae typified by Bob Marley, Lover’s
Rock, Dub and Dancehall.
• Ska: originated in Jamaica in the 1950s on the base of
mento and combined calypso, jazz and rhythm and blues .
An example is: Don Drummond, Love in the Afternoon.
• Rocksteady: became popular in Jamaica from about 1966.
It differs from ska as the tempo is slower and more
relaxed. The Paragons were influential.
• Dub reggae: A form of remixing as the instrumental
version of a song was manipulated by adding special
electronic effects – was pioneered by Osbourne Ruddock-
King Tubby.
• Dubs, which possess an echo and reverberation effect, as
the DJ would then toast (talk or sing) over the
instrumental track.
• U-Roy’s Wake the Town and Tell the People ushered in
the era of dub reggae.
• Reggae: developed in the late 1960s and is
normally slower than ska but faster than
rocksteady.
• Roots Reggae: Roots Reggae is a spiritual form of
reggae. Recurrent lyrical themes include poverty
and resistance to racial and government
oppression. Some of the major artistes were Bob
Marley and the Wailers, Peter Tosh, the
Abyssinians and Burning Spear.
• Lover’s Rock: Lovers Rock was a counterpoint to
the mainly spiritual Roots Reggae. The themes
were about love and relationships. Some of the
earlier proponents were Ken Boothe, Gregory
Isaacs, and Dennis ‘Emmanuel’ Brown.
• Dancehall reggae is currently popular and came
on the scene in the 1980s.
• Popular artistes include the DJs Tiger, Yellowman
and Lt. Stitche. It became even more popular in
the 1990s with the emergence of Shabba Ranks,
Super Cat, Bounty Killa, Beenie Man and Shaggy.
• While dancehall is innovative and cutting edge, it
has also allegedly been characterised by sexually
explicit lyrics and violence.
• However, artistes such as Tony Rebel, Sizzla and
Buju Banton have brought conscious lyrics to
dancehall.
Comparing Musical Genre
Several similarities have emerged in the
comparison between Reggae and Calypso.
They have been creolized but with a strong
African base
Originating in lower income communities,
they have achieved international acclaim
Music acts as the voice of the community, the
disfranchised
Caribbean music portrays the life of the
Caribbean people, and the varying range of
experiences.
Zouk
• Zouk music emerged in the French Antilles in
the 1980s.
• The word zouk is Creole and originated in
Martinique, where it was the common
expression for party.
• Zouk’s dance rhythms are based on traditional
African roots in Martinique
• Zouk owes much of its rhythm to the popular
‘biguine’ music played by dance orchestras in
the French Antilles in the early twentieth
century.
• Performed at fairs, carnivals, and in local discos, zouk
merges West African indigenous drums and
percussive instruments with electronic
instrumentation.
• Indigenous instruments such as the tambour (large
drum and lead instrument), chacha (tin can filled with
stones), and t-bois (thin bamboo sticks) are paired
with guitars, horns, synthesizers, and a drum set.
• Topped off with a large vocal chorus, the communal
joy of zouk music celebrates life amid the strains of
poverty in Martinique.
• Zouk’s popularity is limited to the French speaking
territories in Europe, the Caribbean and Africa.
• Zouk has been made famous by the Caribbean
performing group Kassav.
• Incidentally, Zouk has been adopted by Angola
and the Cape Verde Islands under the name
Kisomba/Kizomba.
• The only difference between the genres is the
language.
• Zouk is performed in French (or French creole),
while kisomba is performed in Portuguese (or
Portuguese creole).
 Tutorial
• Discuss the following Question
• To what extent has Caribbean music and
festivals shape the unity and identity of the
Caribbean people?
 Conclusion
• Two facets of the Caribbean’s culture
expression has been explored, festivals and
music
• What is clear is the ways in which all the
migrants of the Caribbean have all shared their
culture with each other resulting in a creolized
culture despite the plurality of races and
culture
• As culture is evolving, we can only wait
excitedly as to what our future will bring.