Chapter 3:

Mix Design of Concrete and Property of Green

Concrete
Workability and its test
 The strict definition of workability is the amount of useful internal
work necessary to produce full compaction.
 The useful internal work is a physical property of concrete alone and
is the work or energy required to overcome the internal friction
between the individual particles in the concrete.
 Workability is often referred to as the ease with which a concrete can
be transported, placed and consolidated, without excessive bleeding
or segregation.
 Workability is one of the physical parameters of concrete which
affects the strength and durability as well as the cost of labour and
appearance of the finished product.
Factors affecting workabilty

 Water cement ratio: increases with increase in w/c ratio.

 Aggregate cement ratio: low aggregate cement ratio means rich mix
and produces more cement paste and better workability.
 A rather high ratio of volumes of coarse to fine aggregates can result
in segregation and a lower workability, so that the mix is harsh and
not easily finished.
 Too many fines lead to a higher workability, but such an oversanded
mix makes less durable concrete
 Amount and Type of Cement: Fineness of cement is of minor
influence on workability but the finer the cement, the greater the
water demand
 Factors affecting workability
continued…
 Weather Conditions (Temperature, Wind)
 A higher temperature reduces the workability (due to evaporation of water) and
increases the slump loss.
 If the concrete is exposed to the sun or wind, some of the water is lost by
evaporation thus causing the stiffening of concrete and a loss of workability with time.
 Chemical Admixtures:
 can be used to increase workability.
 Use of air entraining agent produces air bubbles which act as a sort of ball bearing
between particles and increases mobility, workability and decreases bleeding,
segregation.
 The use of fine pozzolanic materials also has better lubricating effect and more
workability
 Shape size and texture of aggregate: finer particles require more water to wet their
larger specific area. Rounded and cubical aggregates have lesser surface area than
angular and flaky and so workability increases using rounded and cubical aggregates.
Rough texture has more surface area as compared to smooth texture and smooth
texture gives more workability
Test of workability

 Slump test
 Compaction factor test
 Flow table test
 Vee-Bee test
 Kelly ball test
Slump test
Tools and Apparatus used for Slump Test:
1. Standard Slump Cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm bottom diameter x 300 mm
height)
2. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm long x 16 mm diameter)
3. Slump Plate (500 mm x 500 mm)
Procedure:
i. The mould in the form of a frustum of a cone is placed on a smooth surface with the
smaller opening at the top and filled with concrete in three layers.
ii. Each layer is tamped 25 times with a standard 16 mm φ steel rod.
iii. The top surface is struck off by means of a screeding and rolling motion of thetamping
rod.
iv. The mould must be firmly held against its base during the entire operation; this is
facilitated by handles or foot-rests brazed to the mould.
v. Immediately after filling, the cone is slowly lifted and the unsupported concrete will
now slump. The decrease in the height of the centre of the slumped concrete is called
slump.
Precautions:
 The inside of the mould and its base should be moistened at the beginning of every
test.
 The test should be repeated in case a shear slump is observed.
Slump Test is not suitable for too wet or too dry concrete.
Slump test is Done for medium to high workability

workability Very low Low ( semi Medium Good (super

(dry) plastic) (plastic) plastics)

Slump 0-25 25-50 50-75 75-100

value(mm)
Compaction factor test
  Thistest uses the inverse approach i.e. while workability is
defined as the amount of work necessary to achieve full
compaction, in this test, the degree of compaction achieved
by a standard amount of work is determined.
 Compacting factor=

Tools and Apparatus required:

1. Two hoppers, each a frustum of a cone
2. 2. One cylinder
Procedures
 The upper hopper is filled with concrete, this being placed gently so that,
at this stage, no work is done on the concrete to produce compaction.
 The bottom door of the hopper is then released and the concrete falls into
the lower hopper. This lower hopper is smaller than the upper one.
 The lower hopper is filled to overflowing and thus always contains
approximately the same amount of concrete in a standard state.
 The bottom door of the lower hopper is released and the concrete falls
into the cylinder.
 The net weight of concrete in the known volume of cylinder is
determined.
 The weight or density of the fully compacted concrete is obtained by
actually filling the cylinder with concrete in four layers, each tamped or
vibrated. Thus, the compacting factor can be calculated.
Vee- bee test
Vee bee test

 Indirect method to determine the workability of concrete

 Consists of vibrating table, a metal pot, a standard iron rod
 Slump test as described earlier is performed, placing the slump cone inside the sheet
metal cylindrical pot.
 The glass disc attached to the swivel arm is turned and placed on the top of the
concrete in the pot
 The electrical vibrator is switched on and simultaneously stop watch is also turned
on
 The vibration is continued till a time such as the conical shape of the concrete
disappears and a concrete assumes a cylindrical shape
 The time required for the shape of concrete to change from slump cone shape to
cylindrical shape in seconds is the Vee-bee Degree
 Not suitable for very dry concrete whose slump value cannot be measured by slump
test
Flow table test

 Laboratory test that gives indication of the quality of concrete w.r.t

consistency, cohesiveness and proneness to segregation.
 In this test, a standard mass of concrete is subjected to jolting( shaking)
 The spread of the flow of the concrete is measured and the flow is related
with workability
 A mould made from smooth metal casting in the frustum of cone having
dimensions as base 25 cm, in diameter, upper surface 17 cm, height of cone 12
cm.
 The mould is kept on the center of the table and filled in two layers
 Each layer is tempered 25 times in two layers
 Then the mould is lifted vertically upwards and concrete stands on its support
Flow table test

 Table is then raised and droped 12.5 mm, 15 times in about 15 seconds
 The diameter of spread concrete is measured in about 6 directions to the
nearest 5 mm and the average spread is determined

The flow of concrete is the percentage increase in the average diameter of the
spread concrete over the base diameter of the mould.
Flow percent = (spread diameter in cm-25)/25*100

 A close look at the pattern of spread of concrete gives an indication of the

characteristics of concrete like segregation, etc.
W/C ratio in concrete
 The ratio of weight of water to weight of cement or the volume of water to volume of cement is
called as W/C ratio.
 According to Mr. Power, cement does not combine chemically with more than half the quantity of
water mixed
 Strength of concrete primarily depends upon the strength of cement paste. The strength of cement
paste depends upon the dilution of paste
 the strength of paste increases with cement content and decreases with air and water content.
In 1918 Abrams presented his classic law in the form:
 s= k1/k2*(x)
Where, x = water/cement ratio by volume and for 28-day result, the constants A and B are
14,000 lbs. /sq. in. and 7 respectively.
 Abrams water/cement ratio law states that the strength of concrete is only dependent upon
water/cement ratio provided the mix is workable.
W/C continued…

 According to Abrams, for any given condition of test, the strength of well
compacted concrete with good workability depends upon the w/c ratio.
 Lesser the w/c ratio in the concrete greater will be the strength and vice
versa.
W/C conti….

 From the figure, lower w/c ratio could be used when the concrete is
vibrated to achieve higher strength
 Comparatively higher w/c is required when concrete is hand
compacted
 In both insufficient compaction cases, when the water cement ratio
is below practical limit, the strength of concrete falls rapidly due to
introduction of air voids.
Introduction to Nominal Mix
 the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining
their relative quantities with the purpose of producing an economical
concrete which has certain minimum properties, notably workability,
strength and durability.
Mix Design is of three types:
(i) Nominal Mix
(ii) Design Mix
(iii) Standard Mix
 In the past, the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of
cement, fine and coarse aggregates.
 These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate
strength are termed nominal mixes.
 Hence, nominal mix is prescriptive time aiming that adherence to such
prescriptive specification will result in satisfactory performance.
M10 = 1 : 3:6
M15 = 1 : 2:4
M20 = 1 : 1.5 : 3 – 60% construction in Nepal
M25 = 1 : 1:2

 Design Mix is performance based concrete

 the properties like strength, workability, durability etc. are specified and
ingredients ratio, maximum size of aggregate, type of cement,
etc. are user’s choice. Each country has its own code for mix design.
i. DOE Method
ii. ACI Method
iii. IS Method

Standard Mix is designated by standard factories.

E.g. Panchakanya = 1 : 1.23 : 1.30 : 0.53
Probabilistic concept of mix design
approach
 Concrete, like most other construction processes, have certain
amount of variability both in materials as well as in constructional
methods.
 This results in variation of strength from batch to batch and also
within a batch.
 not possible to have a large number of destructive tests for evaluating
the strength of the end products and as such we have to resort to
sample tests.
 The basis of acceptance of a sample is that a reasonable control of
concrete work can be provided by ensuring that the probability of test
result falling below the design strength is not more than a specified
tolerance level
Probabilistic concept conti…..

 If the number of cube tests results are plotted on histogram, the results are
found to follow the bell shaped curve.
  X/n
 Standard deviation (σ)=
 Coefficient of variation( C.V)= (σ/)*100
Where fm is the average strength obtained by dividing the sum of all strength by
the number of cubes
 Characteristic strength (Fck)


Characteristics strength is the strength of concrete below which not more

than 5 % of test results are expected to fall.
For example: if 100 specimens are made for the test of M25 sample, then
more than 95 samples have compressive strength greater than 25 Mpa.
Fm or ft=fck+k*σ

Where, fck = characteristic strength, fm = average/mean strength (minimum 3

cube test), ft = target strength, k = probability factor, σ= standard deviation
The value of ‘k’ is usually chosen as 1.65 or 2.33, i.e. there is a probability
that 1 in 20( 95 % confidence interval or 1 in 100. 99 % confidence interval),
respectively, of the strength values will fall below the minimum strength.
Concrete Mix Design by DOE, ACI and IS Method

Information required for Mix Proportioning using any method:

 1. Type of Mix
 2. Grade Designation
 3. Maximum nominal size of coarse aggregates
 4. Type of cement
 5. Placing methods of concrete
 6. Minimum water content
 7. Workability
 8. Zoning of fine aggregates (sand)
 9. Degree of supervision
 10. Exposure conditions
 11. Temperature while concreting
 12. Type of work
 British or DOE method
 The Building Research Establishment Laboratory (BRE) of the Department of
Environment (DOE), UK developed a method of concrete mix design (in 1975, revised
in 1988).
 This method replaces the traditional method of Road Research Laboratory (RRL),
Road Note No. 4.
 It does not consider the use of combined aggregate grading curves, aggregate-cement
ratio and type of aggregate (rounded, angular or irregular) as was the case with the
RRL method.
 The degree of workability ‘very low’, ‘low’, ‘medium’ and ‘high’ have also been
replaced
in terms of specific values of slump and Vee-Bee time.
 The proportion of fine aggregate is determined depending on the maximum size of
aggregate, degree of workability, grading of fine aggregate and the water/cement
ratio. The mix proportions are presented in terms of quantities of materials per unit
volume of concrete.
Steps

 1. Determine Target mean Strength (fm or ft).

 2. Selection of water/cement ratio based on target strength, and from
durability considerations:
2. a) selection of w/c ratio from figure1.
2. b) selection of w/c ratio from durability consideration of RCC and Plain
concrete using the exposure conditions.
select the minimum value of w/c ratio from 2. a) and 2.b)
Figure: 1
Table 1
Table 2: For reinforced and prestressed concrete
Table 3: Durabilty requirement unders specified conditions of exposure of plain concrete
DOE method steps…
 3. Select free water content ww : from the given workability:
slump/Vee-bee time, maximum size of aggregates (m.s.a) and type of
aggregate (crushed/uncrushed). Select the free water content from table
4.

Table 4: appropriate free water content for given workabilty

DOE methods steps…
  4. Determine free cement content (wc )
4. a) wc=, ( taking , from step 3 and w/c from step 2.
4. b) taking the minimum cement content for different exposure conditions
from table table 2 or table 3

Select the maximum value of 4. a) and 4. b)

DOE method..

 5. calculate the total aggregate content, (T):

for this, requires the determination of wet density of concrete, Y0
Knowing free water content, relative density of combined aggregates
from figure 2.
 If the specific gravity is unknown, then 2.6 is assumed for un-coarse,
and 2.7 for coarse.
The total aggregate content is determined using:
T=Y0-wc-ww
Figure: 2
DOE method..

 6. Determination of aggregate content:

knowing the w/ ratio, maximum size of aggregate m.s.a, grading zone of fine aggregate,
and workability level, determine the % of fine aggregates (% AF)
fine aggregate content, wfa=t*% AF/100
Coarse aggregate content, wca=1- wfa

 The zone is determined by passing the sand through IS 600 micron sieve and obtaining the
data of passing.
 Zone I = 15 to 39 %
 Zone II = 40 – 59 %
 Zone III = 60 – 79 %
 Zone IV = 80 – 100 %
Figure 3. a) free w/c ratio for 10 mm aggregate

Figure 3. b) free water cement ratio for 20 mm aggregate

Figure 3.c) free w/c ratio for 40 mm aggregate
DOE method

 Step 7. Finally determine the proportion of mix w.r.t to the cement content.

wc/wc :wfa/ wc :wca/ wc :ww/ wc

 Design example of DOE method:
 Design the concrete mix for a reinforced concrete work which will
be exposed moderate condition. The concrete is to be designed for
the compressive strength of 30 Mpa at the age of 28 days. A
requirement of 25 mm cover is prescribed,
maximum size of aggregate (m.s.a) = 20 mm
type of aggregate= uncrused
sieve analysis shows that 50% passess through 600 µ. The bulk
specific aggregate is found to be 2.65
DOE method example solution
 Steps1. find the target mean strength Ft or Fm. In the above problem, target
mean strength for 28 days is directly given as 30 MPa.
 Step 2. Selection of water/cement ratio based on target strength, and from
durability considerations:
2. a) selection of w/c ratio from figure1.
from table 1, OPC of uncrushed aggregate, the compressive strength for 28 days is
42 Mpa. Using the this value and w/c 0.5, select the curve.
The selected curve is used, using 30 Mpa and find out the w/c ratio.
w/c= 0.62
2. b) selection of w/c ratio from durability consideration of RCC and Plain
concrete using the exposure conditions. From table 2.
But the maximum w/c permitted is 0.50.
So select minimum value. w/c= 0.50
 3. Select free water content ww : from the given workability: slump/Vee-bee
time, maximum size of aggregates (m.s.a) and type of aggregate
(crushed/uncrushed). Select the free water content from table 4.
Here slump value is not given, assume the slump of 75 mm,
The water content, ww =195 Kg/m3
DOE method…

  4. Determine free cement content (wc )

4. a) wc=, ( taking , from step 3 and w/c from step 2.
wc=,
=195/0.5
=390 Kg/m3

4. b) taking the minimum cement content for durability requirement under

different exposure conditions from table 2 or table 3
Select the maximum value of 4. a) and 4. b), wc=390 Kg/m3
DOE method

 5. calculate the total aggregate content, (T):

for this, requires the determination of wet density of concrete, Y 0
Knowing free water content, relative density of combined aggregates from figure
2.
Y0= 2400 kg/m3
The total aggregate content is determined using:
T=Y0-wc-ww
=2400—390-195
=1815 kg/m3
 6. Determination of aggregate content:
knowing the w/c ratio, maximum size of aggregate m.s.a, grading zone of
fine aggregate, and workability level, determine the % of fine aggregates (% AF)
Therefore, the (% AF)= 40 %
fine aggregate content, wfa=t*% AF/100
=1815*40/100
=726 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate content, wca=T- wfa =1815-726=1089kg/m3
DOE method

 step 7 . wc/wc :wfa/ wc :wca/ wc :ww/ wc

 390/390: 726/390: 1089/390 : 195/390
 1: 1.86 : 2.79 : 2
Design by British Method

 (a) M20 grade concrete

 (b) Slump – 30 to 60 mm
 (c) Exposure – Mild
 (d) Maximum size of coarse aggregates – 20 mm (crushed)
 (e) Sand passing through 600 micron IS sieve – 54.576
 (f) Specific gravity – coarse aggregates: 2.707, fine aggregates: 2.5
 (g) Cement – OPC – 53 grade
 (h) Type of Work – RCC
 steps
 1. Target strength
Fm or ft=fck+k*σ= 20+1.65*4= 26.6 N/mm2
 2. Minimum water/cement ratio based on target strength
From graph of water/cement ratio vs. 28-day cube compressive strength, W/C = 0.644
 3. Approximate water content
For,
Maximum size of aggregates = 20 mm
Type of aggregate = crushed
Slump = 30 to 60 mm
From table,
Approximate water required = 210 kg for 1 m3 concrete Hence, Cement required = 210/0.644 = 326.1 kg for 1 m3 concrete
 4. w/c based on durability consideration
Maximum free w/c ratio for M20 concrete, mild exposure and RCC Walls:
From table,
Maximum free w/c = 0.55
Hence, weight of cement = 210/0.55 = 382 kg for 1 m3 concrete
Also, from table,
Minimum cement content, kg/m3 = 300 kg
Hence, final weight of cement to be taken = 382 kg (the maximum value)
Step 5

 5. Relative density of Combined Aggregates

(Gca+Gfa)/2=2.60
 Hence, wet density of fresh concrete mix from graph = 2355 kg/m3
 Weight of aggregates required = 2355 – 210 – 382 = 1763 kg
Step 6

 For Sand
The sand lies in second zone.
From figure,
For maximum size of aggregates = 20 mm
% of fine aggregates = (42 + 32)/2 = 37% of fine aggregates
Hence, weight of fine aggregates = 37 % of 1763 = 652 kg for 1 m3 concrete
Weight of coarse aggregates = 1763 – 652 = 1111 kg for 1 m3 concrete
Finally the obtained results

 MIX PROPORTION:
 CEMENT SAND GRAVEL WATER for 1 m3 concrete
 382 652 1111 210
 1 1.71 2.91 0.55
 1 : 1.71 : 2.91 @ 0.55
American Concrete Institute (ACI)
method for Mix Design
 This method was suggested by ACI committee no. 211.
 This method takes into consideration the requirements for
workability, consistency, strength and durability.
 Uses dry rodded density of coarse aggregates.
 Uses fineness modulus of fine aggregates.
 One method is based on the estimated weight of concrete per unit
volume whereas the other is based on calculation of the absolute
volume occupied by concrete ingredients
Differences between British Method and ACI Method:
British
British method/DOE method
 No adjustment of aggregate mixture
is required
 Based on strength and durability
 Volume based calculations cannot be
done. Only weight based calculation
is possible.
 In mixing ingredients, air content
isn’t considered.
 It’s used for producing only non-air
 entraining concrete.
ACI method
 Adjustment is required
 Based on balance between
economy and requirements for
strength, place ability, density, etc
 Both volume and weight based
calculations can be done.
 Air content is considered.
 It is used for producing both air
entraining and non-air entraining
concrete.
Field Data for Mix Design by ACI Mix
Method:
 (a) Characteristic Strength – 20 N/mm2
 (b) Exposure Condition – Mild
 (c) Slump required – 30 to 60 mm
 (d) Maximum size of aggregate grading – 20 mm (crushed) – from sieve
analysis
 (e) Sand passing through 600 micron sieve – 54.578
 (f) Specific gravity of (a) c.a. – 2.707, (b) f.a. – 2.507
 (g) Type of work – RCC
 (h) Unit weight of dry rodded c.a. – 1600 kg/m3
 (i) F.M. of f.a. (from sieve analysis) – 3.1
 ACI method
 step1. determine target mean strength
 Step2. determine w/c ratio from table 1, and from durability considerations. We
can also determine w/c ratio from durability consideration from IS code as well

Table 2. figure: w/c ratio from durability consideration

w/c ratio from Table 1
Durability consideration based on IS 456: 2000
 Step3. determine the amount of mixing water ww , for the given slump, types of
concrete, air entrained or not, and maximum size of aggregate.
Table 3, appro. Requirement, and entrapped air content
  4. Determine cement content (wc )
4. a) wc=, ( taking , from step 3 and w/c from step 2.
wc=,

4. b) taking the minimum cement content for durability requirement under

different exposure conditions from table
Select the maximum value of 4. a) and 4. b)
Durability consideration based on IS 456: 2000
 Step 5. Calculate bulk volume of dry rodded coarse aggregate per unit volume
of coarse aggregate (Bv)
from fineness modulus of fine aggregate, and zone of aggregate, determine bulk
volume of coarse rodded aggregate. For fine aggregate, f.m. usually 3.
 Step 6. Determine the amount of coarse aggregate ( Wca) by:
Wca= Bv*Yca
If not given, Yca=1600 kg/m3, unit weight of coarse aggregate
Step 7. determine the mix proportion.
a. knowing maximum aggregate size and concrete type, air entrained or not, determine
weight of fresh concrete ( Wfc) from table or from equation,
Wfc= 10 Sa (100-A)+Wc(1-Sa/Sc)-Ww(Sa-1)
Where,
Wfc= Weight of fresh concrete, kg/m3
Sa= Weighted average specific gravity of
combined fine and coarse aggregate
Sc= Specific gravity of cement =3.15
Wc= Cement requirement, kg/m3
Ww= Mixing water requirement, kg/m3
A= Air content in percentage
 7. b) determine amount of fine aggregate
Wfa= Wfc-(Ww+Wc+Wca)
7. c) determine proportion by:
wc/wc :wfa/ wc :wca/ wc :ww/ wc
Example of ACI method

 Design a concrete mix from ACI method:

 Required characteristics strength (Fck)= 30 Mpa
 Exposure condition= severe
 Slump required= 30-60 mm
 Type of cement= OPC
 Nominal max size of aggregate: 20 mm crushed
 Fineness of sand= 25 %, passing through 600 micron, IS sieve
Sca=2.7, Sfa=2.65, Sc=3.15
Non air entrained concrete
 1. Target strength
Fm or ft=fck+k*σ= 30+1.65*5= 38.25 N/mm2
 2. determine w/c ratio from table 1 and table 2 durability considerations.
w/c = 0.45 from interpolation
40 0.43
38.25 0.45
30 0.48
From durability requirement, w/c from exposure condition, (fresh water)
w/c= 0.50
Take minimum value, 0.45
 Step3. determine the amount of mixing water ww , for the given slump, types
of concrete, air entrained or not, and maximum size of aggregate.
Here for non air entrained, 20 mm, from table 3
Ww=185 kg/m3
Steps continued….

  Determine cement content (wc )

4. a) wc=, ( taking , from step 3 and w/c from step 2.
wc=,
=185/0.45
=411 kg/m3
4. b) taking the minimum cement content for durability requirement under
different exposure conditions from table, 320 kg/m3
Select the maximum value of 4. a) and 4. b)
Wc= 411kg/m3
 Step 5. Calculate bulk volume of dry rodded coarse aggregate per unit
volume of coarse aggregate (Bv)
from fineness modulus of fine aggregate, and zone of aggregate,
determine bulk volume of coarse rodded aggregate. For fine aggregate,
f.m. usually 3.
Bv= 0.60 From table
 Step 6. Determine the amount of coarse aggregate ( Wca) by:
Wca= Bv*Yca
If not given, Yca=1600 kg/m3, unit weight of coarse aggregate
= 0.60*1600= 960 kg/m3
Step 7. determine the mix proportion.
a. knowing maximum aggregate size and concrete type, air entrained or not,
determine weight of fresh concrete ( Wfc) from table, 2355 kg/m3
or from equation,
Wfc= 10 Sa (100-A)+Wc(1-Sa/Sc)-Ww(Sa-1)
=10*2.68(100-2)+ 411(1-2.68/3.15)-185(2.68-1)
=2376 kg/m3
Adopt either value: 2355 kg/m3
ACI method

 7. b) determine amount of fine aggregate

Wfa= Wfc-(Ww+Wc+Wca)
=2355-( 185+411+960)
=799 kg/ m3
7. c) determine proportion by:
wc/wc :wfa/ wc :wca/ wc :ww/ wc
411/411: 799/411: 960/411: 185/411
1: 1.94: 2.33: 0.45
IS method

 Addition information in IS method

Compaction factor
Grading of cement
free moisture content in fine aggregate
free moisture content in coarse aggregate

This method is suitable to design normal concrete mixes, ( non air entrained) for
different grades of cement based on 28 days strength
IS method steps
 Step 1. Determine the target mean strength based on characteristic strength
and standard deviation
 Step 2. a) determine w/c ratio from curve of compressive strength vs w/c
ratio
b) check the w/c ratio from the durability requirement.
select the minimum value of w/c ratio
Figure 1: w/c ratio vs compressive strength curve
Table: 1 , w/c ratio from durability consideration
Grade A: 32.5-37.5 Mpa
Grade B: 37.5-42.5
Grade C: 42.5-47.5
Grade D: 47.5-52.5
Grade E: 52.5-57.5
Grade F: 57.5-62.5
Grade G: 62.5-64.9 Mpa
IS method…
 Step 3. determine the amount of entrapped air for the maximum size of
aggregate from table

Table: 2
IS method
 Step 4. find the water content Ww)i and percentage of sand ( Ps)i in total
aggregate from table:

Table 3 Table 4
IS method
 Step 5. make adjustments in water content and percentage of sand for
different conditions of workability from table and calculate actual value of Ww
and Ps.

Table 5: Adjustment of values in water contents and sand percentage for other conditions
  Step 6. Calculations of cement content (Wc)
6.a ) wc=
6. b minimum cement content from durability consideration
take the maximum value of a) and b)
Step 7. determination of net volume of fresh concrete ( V)
V= 1- Vea
  
Step 8. Determine the amount of aggregate
for fine aggregate:
V=1/1000 [ Ww+ + ]
For coarse aggregate:
V= 1/1000[ Ww+ + ]
V= Net volume of fresh concrete = 1 m3-volume of entrapped air
Sc= specific gravity of cement
Sfa= specific gravity of sand (SSD)
SCA= specific gravity of coarse aggregate (SSD)
Ww= Mass of water per m3of concrete
Wc= Mass of cement per m3of concrete
WCA= Mass of coarse aggregate per m3of concrete
P= ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume
 IS method..
Step 9. Obtain the actual amount of water to be added after making
correction for water absorption by aggregate and free moisture present
in the aggregate. Similarly, get actual quantities for fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate required.
aWfa= (1+Mf)Wfa
aWca= (1+Mc)Wca
aWw= Ww-(Mf*Wfa+Mc*Wca)
awc/wc :awfa/ wc :awca/ wc :aww/ wc

Step 10. Check the calculated mix proportions by means of trial batches
and make suitable modification, if required.
3.6 Segregation and Bleeding

SEGREGATION IN CONCRETE
 Segregation can be defined as separation of the constituents of a
heterogeneous mixture so that their distribution is no longer uniform.
 In the case of concrete, it is the difference in the size of particles (and
sometimes in the specific gravity of the mix constituents) that is the primary
cause of segregation, but its extent can be controlled by the choice of
suitable grading and by care in handling.
 Segregation may be of two types: internal and external.
 In internal segregation, coarsest or heaviest part of aggregates accumulates
on the bottom and lighter or finer ones accumulate at the top during
compaction.
 External segregation, on the other hand, is caused by external forces due to
say improper handling.
Causes of segregation
 Poor mixing of concrete
 Insufficient or over w/c content in the mixture
 Improper grading of aggregate
 Improper handling of concrete
 Excessive vibration
 Improper placing of concrete
Effects of seggregation

 Poor strength of concrete i.e. it results in honey combed structure

 Shrinkage and cracks are produced
 Cracks in concrete

Honey combed concrete

Prevention of seggregation

 (a) Choice of suitable grading of aggregates.

 (b) Employing correct methods of handling, transporting and placing.

 (c) The danger of segregation can be reduced by the use of air-entrainment

Concrete bleeding

 Bleeding, also known as ‘water gain’, is a form of segregation in which some of

the water in the mix tends to rise to the surface of freshly placed concrete.
 This is caused by the inability of the solid constituents of the mix to hold all of the
mixing water when they settle downwards.
 This is caused because of low specific gravity of water among all
 While coming up, water takes cement particles from concrete to the surface
called laitance that causes dust in summer and mud in winter
 As a result of bleeding, the top of every lift (layer of concrete placed) may
become too wet, and, if the water is trapped by superimposed concrete, a porous
and a weak layer of non durable concrete will result.
 If the bleeding water is remixed during the finishing of the top surface, a weak
wearing surface will be formed.
Bleeding in concrete
Prevention of bleeding
 Proper mix proportioning and uniform and complete mixing.

 Use of finely divided pozzolanic materials reduces bleeding by creating a

longer path for the water to traverse.

 Air-entraining agent is very much effective in reducing the bleeding.

 Bleeding can be reduced by the use of finer cement( finer cement has more
surface area) and reduces bleeding. Rich mixes are less susceptible to
bleeding than lean mixes.
Quality control in site

 Concrete is usually produced in batches at the site with the locally available
materials of various characteristics
 Quality control is therefore likely to vary from one batch to another batch
variations depends upon the factors like:
 Variations in quality in materials
 Variations in mix proportion
 Variations in quality in batching
 In mixing equipments
 Quality of overall workmanship and supervision at site
thus the major aim of quality control is to reduce these different variations and
produce uniform materials providing desirable characteristics
 Quality control in site : Batching, Mixing,
handling, placing, compaction and curing
a) Batching
Batching is the process of measuring concrete mix ingredients
either by volume or by mass and introducing them into the
mixture. Traditionally batching is done by volume but most
specifications require that batching be done by mass rather
than volume. Percentage of accuracy for measurement of
concrete materials as follows
Quality control at site: Batching, MIXING,
handling, placing, compacting and curing

 MIXING
 Thorough mixing of the materials is essential for the production of uniform
concrete.
 The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous, uniform in
colour and consistency.
There are two methods adopted for mixing concrete:
 i. Hand Mixing
 ii. Machine Mixing
Hand Mixing

 Hand Mixing is practiced for small scale unimportant concrete works. As the
mixing cannot be thorough and efficient, it is desirable to add 10 percent
more cement to cater for the inferior concrete produced by this method.
 Hand mixing should be done over an impervious concrete or brick floor of
sufficiently large size to take one bag of cement.
Machine mixing

 Mixing of concrete is almost invariably carried out by machine, for reinforced

concrete work and for medium or large scale mass concrete work.
 Machine mixing is not only efficient, but also economical, when the quantity
of concrete to be produced is large.
 Mixers can be batch mixers or continuous mixers.
 Batch mixers produce concrete, batch by batch with time interval, whereas
continuous mixers produce concrete continuously without stoppage till such
time the plant is working.
 It is important to know the minimum mixing time necessary to produce a
concrete of uniform composition, and of reliable strength.
 The mixing time or period should be measured from time all the cementing
materials and aggregates are in mixer drum till taking out the concrete.
 Mixing time depends on the type and size of mixer, on the speed of rotation,
and on the
 quality of blending of ingredients during charging of the mixer.
 Generally, a mixing time of less than 1 to 1.25 minutes produces appreciable
non-uniformity in composition and a significant lower strength; mixing beyond
2 minutes causes no significant improvement in these properties.
Ready mixed concrete:

 If instead of being batched and mixed on site, concrete is delivered for placing
from a central plant. It is referred to as ready-mixed or pre-mixed concrete.
 This type of concrete is used extensively abroad as it offers numerous
advantages in comparison with other methods of manufacture:
 (a) Close quality control of batching which reduces the variability of the
desired properties of hardened concrete.
 (b) Use on congested sites or in highway construction where there is little
space for a
mixing plant and aggregate stockpiles;
 (c) Use of agitator trucks to ensure care in transportation, thus prevention
segregation and maintaining workability
 (d) Convenience when small quantities of concrete or intermittent placing are
required.
Agitator truck
Handling of concrete

 There are many methods of transporting of concrete from mixture to site like
 mortar pan
 Wheel borrow
 Crane, bucket, and ropeway
 Truck, mixtures and dumpers
 Belt conveyors
 Chute
 Skip hoister
 Pump and piping
 Transit mixture
Mortar pan
Wheel barrow

Crane bucket and ropeway

Truck dumpers

Belt conveyors
chute
PLACING AND COMPACTION OF CONCRETE

 The operation of placing and compaction are interdependent and are carried
out simultaneously.
 They are most important for the purpose of ensuring the requirements of
strength, impermeability and durability of hardened concrete in the actual
structure.
 As for as placing is concerned, the main objective is to deposit the concrete as
close as possible to its final position so that segregation is avoided and the
concrete can be fully compacted.
 It is to get the concrete into position at a speed, and in a condition, that allow
it to be compacted properly
Rules to be kept in mind before placing
 The concrete should be placed in uniform layers, not in large heaps or
sloping layers.
 The thickness of the layer should be compatible with the method of
vibration so that
 entrapped air can be removed from the bottom of each layer.
 The rate of placing and of compaction should be equal.
 Each layer should be fully compacted before placing the next one,
and each subsequent layer should be placed whilst the underlying
layer is still plastic so that monolithic construction is achieved
Collision between concrete and formwork or reinforcement should be
avoided.
 For deep sections, a long down pipe ensures accuracy of location of
concrete and minimum segregation.
CURING OF CONCRETE

 Curing can be described as the process of maintaining satisfactory moisture

content and a favourable temperature in concrete during the period
immediately following placement,
 so that hydration of cement may continue until the desired properties are
developed to a sufficient degree to meet the requirement of service.
Curing serves two major purposes:
 It prevents or replenishes the loss of moisture from the concrete.
 It maintains a favourable temperature for hydration to occur for a definite
period.
METHODS OF CURING:

 Maintaining the presence of mixing water during the early hardening period
methods used include ponding or immersion, spraying,
 Preventing loss of mixing water from the surface by sealing
 Accelerating strength gain by supplying heat and additional moisture to the
concrete. This may be accomplished using stream curing, insulting blankets or
covers
Concreting in extreme weather
temperature
Concreting in extreme weather temperature
a) Concreting in hot weather
b) Concreting in cold weather
  Concreting in hot weather
 It is difficult to define what hot weather condition is. However just for convenience, it is
regarded that the concrete placed at an atmospheric temperature above 40 degree
centigrade is considered as hot weather concreting 

 Problems
 Rapid rate of hydration of cement, quick setting and early stiffening.
 Rapid evaporation of mixing water
 Greater plastic shrinkage
 Reduce relative humidity ( this point is positive from corrosion point of view but required
more curing)
 Concreting in extreme weather temperature-
Concreting in hot weather
 Problems
 Absorption of water from the concrete by the sub grade and formwork
 Difficult in continuous curing due to being more hot in less time
 Difficult in incorporation of air entrainment
 Precautions
 Kept temperature as low as possible by shading the aggregate piles and the
mixture
 Reduce the temperature of aggregate by sprinkling water on it. The evaporation
of sprinkled water will cool the aggregate
 Keep water supply cool by insulating or shading pipes and tanks
 Use crushed ice with mixing water
 Effect of hot weathering can also be reduced by working at night time
 For curing, covering with wet burlap (jut bag) or by sprinkling or by other
moisture retaining materials has been found better as it has a definite cooling
value.
Concreting in extreme weather temperature-
Concreting in cold weather
 Concreting in cold weather
 The Temperature generally freezing temperature is considered as cold weather
for concreting
 
 Problems
 Delay in setting and hardening
 Freezing of concrete at early age
 Freezing and thawing: setting of concrete is suspended if concrete freezes
immediately after it has been placed. If concrete freezes after it has sets but
before it has attained sufficient strength, the expansion due to the formation of
ice causes disruption and loss of strength. If freezing takes place when concrete
has developed sufficient strength ,it can resist freezing effect without damage
not only by virtue of the higher resistance to the pressure of ice but also due to
the fact that large parts of the mixing water will have combined with the
cement or located in the gel pores and thus would not freeze.
Concreting in extreme weather temperature-
Concreting in cold weather
 Precaution
 Heat mixing water, to increase temperature of fresh
concrete
 Heat aggregate, if water (hot water) alone does not
raise the temperature of concrete
 Use of cement of high rate of heat generation (i.e.
cement having high C3S and C3A produced high heat
during reaction)
CURING UNDER DIFFERENT WEATHER CONDITIONS:

 Under normal weather, the key concerns in curing will be the maintenance of a
moist environment around the concrete.
 Temperature variations are not a major problem, provided the concrete
temperature is maintained above 5 degrees Celsius.
 Curing can therefore be achieved either through maintaining mixing water in
the concrete during early hardening or by preventing moisture loss from the
surface by sealing. The ultimate choice of the particular method to use will take
into consideration factors such as economy, esthetics, member shape, etc.
 Under hot weather conditions, the high temperatures are likely to result in
excessive moisture loss. Maintaining mixing water in the concrete is the major
concern. Continuous moist curing should be done for the entire curing period.
 If this is not possible, the concrete surfaces should be protected from drying out
using any of the previously mentioned methods and the surfaces kept damp.
Surfaces should dry out slowly after curing to reduce possibility of surface
cracking.
Curing….
 Curing in cold weather will be different as in this case the biggest concern will be the maintaining
of an adequate and conducive temperature for hydration.
 For massive members, the heat generated by the concrete during hydration will be adequate to
provide a satisfactory curing temperature.
 For non-massive members, a good alternative is steam curing, which provides both moisture and
heat. In any case, a minimum favorable temperature in the range of 10 - 21º C must be maintained
in the concrete for the minimum required curing period.
 Where moist curing is not done, very low temperatures may be avoided by insulating the member
appropriately.
CURING PERIOD AND TEMPERATURE:

 The curing period depends upon the type of cement used, mixture proportions,
required strength, size and shape of member, ambient weather, future exposure
conditions, and method of curing. Since all desirable properties are improved
with curing, the period should be as long as practical.
 For most concrete structures, the curing period at temperatures above 5º C (40º
F) should be a minimum of 7 days or until 70% of the specified compressive or
flexural strength is attained.
 The period can be reduced to 3 days if high early strength concrete is used and
the temperature is above 10º C (50º F).