Industrial Process Control

Pressure Sensor

Dr. Farah Haroon

Overview
Pressure (P ) expresses the magnitude of normal force F (N) per unit
area A (m2) applied on a surface
F F
P  or P 
A A
SI Units: Pascal (Pa) = N/m2  or kg/ms2
A pressure of 1 Pa is small; pressures are often stated in
kilopascals (1 kPa = 1000 Pa).
Non SI Units: lb/in2 and bar =105 Pa=100 kPa ,
mbar =100Pa
Atmospheric pressure is often given in millibars where
standard sea level pressure is defined as 1000 mbar, 100 (kPa),
or 1 bar.
This should be distinguished from the now deprecated unit of
pressure, known as the atmospheric pressure (atm), which is
equal to 1.01325 bar. 
 There are six terms applied to pressure
measurements. They are as follows:
Total vacuum: It is zero pressure or lack of
pressure, as would be experienced in outer space.
Vacuum: It is a pressure measurement made
between total vacuum and normal atmospheric
pressure (14.7 psi).
Atmospheric pressure: It is the pressure on the
earth’s surface due to the weight of the gases in the
earth’s atmosphere and is normally expressed at sea
level as 14.7 psi or 101.36 kPa. It is however,
dependant on atmospheric conditions. The pressure
decreases above sea level and at an elevation of 5000
ft drops to about 12.2 psi (84.122 kPa).
Absolute pressure: It is the pressure measured
with respect to a vacuum and is expressed in
pounds per square inch absolute (psia).
Gauge pressure: It is the pressure measured with
respect to atmospheric pressure and is normally
expressed in pounds per square inch gauge (psig)
Differential pressure: is the pressure measured
with respect to another pressure and is expressed
as the difference between the two values. This
would represent two points in a pressure or flow
system and is referred to as the delta p.
 A wide range of materials can be used for the sensing film,
from rubber to plastic for low-pressure devices, silicon for
medium pressures, to stainless steel for high pressures.
When pressure is applied to the diaphragm, the film
distorts or becomes slightly spherical. This movement can
be sensed using a strain gauge, piezoelectric, or changes in
capacitance techniques.
 Pabs  Patm  Pgage

Where
Pabs : Absolute pressure
Patm : Atmospheric pressure
Pgage : Gage pressure

 Many types of pressure gauges are zero-referenced to

atmospheric pressure, which means that they measure the
pressure above atmospheric pressure (which is around 1 bar);
this is gauge pressure.
• In contrast, absolute pressures are zero-referenced to a
complete vacuum Thus, the absolute pressure of any system
is the gauge pressure of the system plus atmospheric pressure.
 Pressure Measuring Devices
Manometer basics
 Characterized by its inherent
accuracy and simplicity of operation.

 It’s the U-tube manometer, which is

a U-shaped glass tube partially filled
with liquid.

 This manometer has no moving

parts and requires no calibration.

 Manometer measurements are

functions of gravity and the liquid’s
density, both physical properties that
make the U-tube manometer a NIST
standard for accuracy.
 Manometer
With both legs of a U-tube
manometer open to the
atmosphere or subjected to the
same pressure, the liquid
maintains the same level in
each leg, establishing a zero
reference.

Sp.gravity of water =1

Sp.weight of water
= 9.807 kN/m3 or 62.43 lb/ft3.
U-tube Manometer

Principles: Hydrostatic Law

∆P=ρ g h
Typical pressure sensor functional blocks.
Sensing Elements

The main types of sensing elements are

 Bourdon tubes,
 diaphragms,
 capsules, and
 bellows .

All except diaphragms provide a fairly large displacement

that is useful in mechanical gauges and for electrical
sensors that require a significant movement.
 Sensing Elements

The basic pressure sensing element can be configured as a C-shaped

Bourdon tube (A); a helical Bourdon tube (B); flat diaphragm (C); a
convoluted diaphragm (D); a capsule (E); or a set of bellows (F).
Primary Pressure Elements
Capsule, Bellows & Spring Opposed Diaphragm
Diaphragms, capsules, and bellows

A diaphragm consists of a thin layer or film of a material

supported on a rigid frame and is shown in Fig. Pressure
can be applied to one side of the film for gauge sensing
or pressures can be applied to both sides of the film for
differential or absolute pressure sensing.
Bellows

 Made of Bronze, S.S., BeCu, Monel etc..

 The movement is proportional to number of convolutions
 Sensitivity is proportional to size
 In general a bellows can detect a slightly lower pressure than a
diaphragm
 The range is from 0-5 mmHg to 0-2000 psi
 Accuracy in the range of 1% span
Diaphragm

(a) flat diaphragm; (b) corrugated diaphragm

 A diaphragm usually is designed so that the deflection-

versus-pressure characteristics are as linear as possible
over a specified pressure range, and with a minimum of
hysteresis and minimum shift in the zero point.
Diaphragm
 Pressure Measuring Devices
Bourdon Gage:

http://www.efunda.com/DesignStandards/sensors/bourdon_tubes/images/Bourdon_tube_A.gif
http://www.cpigauges.com/images/gauges/WeldGageStlCsBM400psi.jpg http://www.hydraulicspneumatics.com/FPE/images/sensors1_1.jpg

Principles: change in curvature of the tube is proportional to difference of

pressure inside from that outside the tube

Applications: tire pressure, pressure at the top or along the walls of tanks or
vessels
Pressure Measuring Devices
Strain Gage

Principles: ∆ P  ∆ Resistance  ∆ Voltage

Applications: Sensors for internal combustion engines, automotive, research etc. 

Pressure Measuring Devices
Quartz Gage
Piezoelectric transducers

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/SchemaPiezo.gif
http://www.ransohoff.com/images/systems/transducerlgr.jpg

Principles: ∆ Pressure  ∆ Charge  ∆ Voltage

Applications: measurements with high accuracy, good repeatability, high resolution.

e g. Quartz Clock
Pressure Measuring Devices
Piezoresistive Gage

Digital Manometer

Principles: ∆Pressure = ∆Charge = ∆Resistance = ∆Voltage

Applications: Very accurate for small pressure differentials

e.g. Difference between indoor and outdoor pressure
Level Measurement
The measured medium can be liquid, gas
or solid and stored in vessels (open/closed
tanks), silos, bins and hoppers.

Units of level can be expressed in:

 feet (meters)
 gallons (liters)
 pounds (kilograms)
 cubic volume (ft3, m3)
 Direct Methods
Direct methods sense the surface or interface of
the liquid and is not affected by changes in material
density (Specific Gravity).

Examples:
 Dip Stick
 Resistance Tapes
 Sight Glass
 Floats
 Ultrasonic
Indirect Methods
Indirect methods “infer” liquid level by measuring some
other physical parameter such as pressure, weight, or
temperature. Changing materials means a corrective
factor must be used or recalibrating the instrument.

Examples:
 Hydrostatic head methods
 Load Cells
 Capacitance
 Conductivity
 Selection Criteria
When determining the type of level sensor that should be
used for a given application, there are a series of questions
that must be answered:

 Open tank or closed tank?

 Can the level sensor be inserted into the tank or should it
be completely external? Contact or non-contact?
 Continuous measurement or point measurement?
 Direct or Indirect measurement?
 What type of material is being measured? Liquid or Solid?
Clean or Slurry?
Sight Glass
For pressurized and open vessel
Dip Stick
Simple and cheap
Can be used with any wet
material and not affected by
density.
Can not be used with
pressurized tanks
Visual indication only
(electronic versions are
available)
Resistance Tape
The pressure of the fluid in the tank causes the tape
to short-circuit, thus changing the total resistance
of the measuring tape. An electronic circuit
measures the resistance; it's directly related to the
liquid level in the tank.
 Magnetic Level Sensors

•Used where the sight

glass level gauge can
not be.
Magneto-resistive
types can provide an
electrical output.

Liquid/liquid interface (such as water and oil) can be measured by changing the
buoyancy of the magnetic float
Floats
Float rides the surface level to provide the measurement.
Many different styles are available.

Liquid density does not affect measurement

Capacitance Measurement Theory
 All RF level systems make use of
enhancements of the same
capacitance-measuring technique,
and the same basic theory underlies
them all.
 An electrical capacitance exists
between two conductors separated
by a distance, d. The first conductor
can be the vessel wall (plate 1), and
the second can be a measurement
probe or electrode (plate 2). The two
conductors have an effective area, A,
normal to each other.
 Between the conductors is an
insulating medium — the non
conducting material involved in the
level measurement.
Ultrasonic and Sonic
 Both ultrasonic and sonic level
instruments operate on the basic
principle of using sound waves to
determine fluid level. The
frequency range for ultrasonic
methods is ~20–200 kHz, and
sonic types use a frequency of 10
kHz.
 A top-of-tank mounted transducer
directs waves downward in bursts
onto the surface of the material
whose level is to be measured.
Echoes of these waves return to
the transducer, which performs
calculations to convert the
distance of wave travel into a
measure of level in the tank.
Hydrostatic Head Level Sensors
These methods infer level by measuring the
hydrostatic head produced by the liquid column.
A pressure sensing element is installed at the
bottom of the tank and pressure is converted to
level.
Different liquid densities or closed tank
applications must be accounted for.
Head Measurement

The Pressure exerted by the Height of the

liquid is:
P = H x Density*
If the Density of the liquid is known then
Liquid Density H = Density*
(D)
Height
(H)
Pressure

Pressure
PSI

*Note: For liquids other than water, use the density of water 0.0361 lb/in3 as a
reference and multiply by the SG of the liquid.
Example
A dip stick measurement of the level of these 2 tanks indicates 30 feet of
liquid in both tanks. Calculate the pressure that each gauge will read if tank 1
contains water (S.G. = 1) and tank 2 contains oil (S.G. = 0.85)

Water Oil
Density (D)
Density (D) Height
Height
(H)
(H)

Tank 1 Tank 2
PSI
PSI

P = ? psi
P = ? psi

P = H x Density x SG P = H x Density x SG
= 30 ft x 0.0361 lbs/in3 x 1 = 30 ft x 0.0361 lbs/in3 x 0.85
= (30 x 12) x 0.0361 = (30 x 12) x 0.0361 x 0.85
= 13 psi = 11 psi
 Practical Considerations when using head type instruments

The reference point of the tank vs instrument input must be considered.

Liquid Density Liquid Density

(D) (D)
Height (H) Height (H)
Pressure
PSI

Pressure PSI

This may not be practical in some applications where the tank elevation is
below grade or where a remote visual reading is required.
Tank Elevations
Vertical rises and drops contribute to the overall height and
therefore head pressure. Horizontal runs have no effect.

Water
Density (D)
Height
(H)

P
Bubblers
Instrument
P input does not
• Bubblers allow matter

the indicator to Regulated purge

be located system
(air or nitrogen)
anywhere.
• The air pressure
in the tube
varies with the
head pressure of Bottom of tube
determines
the height of the reference point
liquid.
Can’t be used in closed tanks or where purging a liquid is not allowed.
Closed Tank Applications
P (atmospheric)
• Open tanks are vented to atmosphere so
the pressure at the bottom of the tank is
only due to the head pressure of the
liquid.

P Head = h x D

• Closed tanks are not vented to

atmosphere so the pressure at the bottom
P vapour of the tank is due to the head pressure of
the liquid + the vapour pressure above
the surface.

P Head = (h x D) + P vapour
Using a d/P Cell Transmitter
• The differential pressure cell is one of the most common
methods of measuring level.

4 – 20 mA

24 VDC mA To PLC or
Controller

Lo side open to
atmosphere

Open Tank Measurement

• Lo side of the d/P cell is left open to atmosphere.
• Hi side measures the hydrostatic head pressure which is proportional to the height
of the liquid and its density.
Using a d/P Cell Transmitter
• In a closed tank, the Low side of the d/P cell is
connected to the top of the tank and will cancel the
effects of the vapour pressure above the surface.

4 – 20 mA

24 VDC mA To PLC or
Controller

H L

Closed Tank Measurement

• Lo side of the d/P cell measures the vapour pressure above the surface.
• Hi side measures the hydrostatic head pressure which is proportional to the height
of the liquid and its density + vapour pressure
 FLOW MEASUREMENT - TERMS
DENSITY (r)
◦ A measure of mass per unit of volume (lb/ft3 or kg/m3).

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
◦ The ratio of the density of a material to the density of water or air depending on
whether it is a liquid or a gas.

COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
◦ Fluids (such as gasses) where the volume changes with respect to changes in the
pressure. these fluids experience large changes in density due to changes in
pressure.

NON-COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
◦ Fluids (generally liquids) which resist changes in volume as the pressure changes.
these fluids experience little change in density due to pressure changes.
44#
FLOW MEASUREMENT - UNITS
 Flow is measured as a quantity (either volume or
mass) per unit time
 Volumetric units
◦ Liquid
 gpm, m3/hr, liters/min, etc.
◦ Gas or Vapor
 ft3/hr, m3/hr, etc.
 Mass units (either liquid, gas or vapor)
◦ lb/hr, kg/hr, etc.
Flow can be measured in accumulated (totalized)
total amounts for a time period
◦ gallons, liters, meters passed in a day, etc.

45#
Principles of Fluid Flow in Pipes
 In laminar flow , the fluid travels as parallel layers
(known as streamlines) that do not mix as they move in
the direction of the flow.
 If the flow is turbulent, the fluid does not travel in
parallel layers, but moves in a haphazard manner with
only the average motion of the fluid being parallel to the
axis of the pipe.
 If the flow is transitional , then both types may be
present at different points along the pipeline or the flow
may switch between the two.
 In 1883, Osborne Reynolds performed a classic set of
experiments that showed that the flow characteristic can
be predicted using a dimensionless number, now known
as the Reynolds number.
 SIDE VIEW END VIEW

VMAX

PARABOLIC FLOW PROFILE CONCENTRIC FLUID LAYERS

Laminar Flow

SIDE VIEW

VMAX ~ VAVG
Turbulent Flow
REYNOLDS NUMBER
 The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces (velocity and
density that keep the fluid in motion) to viscous forces (frictional
forces that slow the fluid down) and is used for determining the
dynamic properties of the fluid to allow an equal comparison between
different fluids and flows.
 Laminar Flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces
are dominant, and is characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion
 Turbulent Flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers and is dominated
by inertial forces, producing random eddies, vortices and other flow
fluctuations.
 The Reynolds number is the most important value used in fluid
dynamics as it provides a criterion for determining similarity between
different fluids, flow rates and piping configurations.

49#
Dynamic viscosity (also known as
absolute viscosity) is the measurement of
the fluid's internal resistance to flow.

 kinematic viscosity refers to the ratio

of dynamic viscosity to density.
0 2000 4000

LAMINAR TRANSITION TURBULENT