MAE 3241: AERODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT MECHANICS

Summary of Incompressible Flow Over Airfoils

Summary of Thin Airfoil Theory
Example Airfoil Calculation

Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department

Florida Institute of Technology

D. R. Kirk

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 KEY EQUATIONS FOR cl, L=0, cm,c/4, and xcp
cl    2 A0  A1 


1 dz
 L 0     cos  0  1d 0
 0 dx


cm , c 4   A2  A1 
4

c  
xcp  1   A1  A2  
4  cl 

• Within these expression we need to evaluate A0, A1, A2, and dz/dx
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 A0, A1, and A2 COEFFICIENTS
 
1 dz 1 dz
A0     d 0 A0     d 0
 0 dx  0 dx

 
2 dz 2 dz
An   cos n 0 d 0 A1   cos  0 d 0
 0 dx  0 dx


2 dz
A2   cos 2 0 d 0
 0 dx
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 CENTER OF PRESSURE AND AERODYNAMIC CENTER
• Center of Pressure: It is that point on an airfoil (or body) about which the
aerodynamic moment is zero
– Thin Airfoil Theory: c
xcp 
• Symmetric Airfoil: 4
• Cambered Airfoil: c  
xcp  1   A1  A2  
4  cl 

• Aerodynamic Center: It is that point on an airfoil (or body) about which the
aerodynamically generated moment is independent of angle of attack
– Thin Airfoil Theory: c
• Symmetric Airfoil: x A.C . 
4
• Cambered Airfoil: c
x A.C . 
4

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ACTUAL LOCATION OF AERODYNAMIC CENTER

x/c=0.25
NACA 23012
xA.C. < 0.25c

x/c=0.25
NACA 64212
xA.C. > 0.25 c

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EXAMPLE OF LEADING EDGE STALL
• NACA 4412 Airfoil
(12% thickness)

• Linear increase in cl until stall

• At  just below 15º streamlines

are highly curved (large lift) and
still attached to upper surface of
airfoil

• At  just above 15º massive

flow-field separation occurs
over top surface of airfoil →
significant loss of lift

• Called Leading Edge Stall

• Characteristic of relatively thin
airfoils with thickness between
about 10 and 16 percent chord

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 EXAMPLE OF TRAILING EDGE STALL

• NACA 4421 (21% thickness)

• Progressive and gradual movement of separation from trailing edge toward
leading edge as  is increased
• Called Trailing Edge Stall
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 THIN AIRFOIL STALL
• Example: Flat Plate with 2% thickness (like a NACA 0002)
• Flow separates off leading edge even at low  ( ~ 3º)
• Initially small regions of separated flow called separation bubble
• As a increased reattachment point moves further downstream until total separation

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NACA 4412 VERSUS NACA 4421
• Both NACA 4412 and NACA 4421
have same shape of mean camber
line
• Thin airfoil theory predict that linear
lift slope and L=0 should be the
same for both

• Leading edge stall shows rapid

drop of lift curve near maximum lift
• Trailing edge stall shows gradual
bending-over of lift curve at
maximum lift, “soft stall”
• High cl,max for airfoils with leading
edge stall

• Flat plate stall exhibits poorest

behavior, early stalling

• Thickness has major effect on cl,max

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 OPTIMUM AIRFOIL THICKNESS
• Some thickness vital to achieving high maximum lift coefficient
• Amount of thickness will influence type of stalling behavior
• Expect an optimum
• Example: NACA 63-2XX, NACA 63-212 looks about optimum

NACA 63-212

cl,max

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AIRFOIL THICKNESS

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 AIRFOIL THICKNESS: WWI AIRPLANES
English Sopwith Camel

Thin wing, lower maximum CL

Bracing wires required – high drag

German Fokker Dr-1

Higher maximum CL
Internal wing structure
Higher rates of climb
Improved maneuverability

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 MODERN LOW-SPEED AIRFOILS
NACA 2412 (1933)
Leading edge radius = 0.02c

NASA LS(1)-0417 (1970)

Whitcomb [GA(w)-1] (Supercritical Airfoil)
Leading edge radius = 0.08c
Larger leading edge radius to flatted cp
Bottom surface is cusped near trailing edge
Discourages flow separation over top
Higher maximum lift coefficient
At cl~1 L/D > 50% than NACA 2412

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 MODERN AIRFOIL SHAPES
Boeing 737

Root Mid-Span Tip

http://www.nasg.com/afdb/list-airfoil-e.phtml
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 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
• Note that all airfoils we have seen, even flat
plate, will produce lift at some 
• Production of lift itself is not that difficult

 C L  Winitial 
• L/D ratio R ln
– Production of lift with minimum drag SFC C D  W final 
– Measure of aerodynamic efficiency of
wing or airplane 3
 CL 2
 2   S  2 W final2  Winitial2 
1 1 1
– Important impact on performance E
range, endurance SFC C D  

• Maximum lift coefficient, CL,max V2

– Effective airfoil shape produces high R
value of cl,max g n2 1
– Stalling speed of aircraft (take-off,
landing) d V g n 2  1
  
– Improved maneuverability (turn radius, dt R V
turn rate)
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HIGH LIFT DEVICES: SLATS AND FLAPS
1
L  q SC L   V2 SC L
2
2L
V 
  SC L
2W
Vstall 
  SC L ,max

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 HIGH LIFT DEVICES: FLAPS

• Flaps shift lift curve

• Act as effective increase in camber of airfoil
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AIRFOIL DATA: NACA 1408 WING SECTION

Flap extended

Flap retracted

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HIGH LIFT DEVICES: SLATS

• Allows for a secondary flow between gap

between slat and airfoil leading edge
• Secondary flow modifies pressure
distribution on top surface delaying
separation

• Slats increase stalling angle of attack, but

do not shift the lift curve (same L=0)
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EXAMPLE: BOEING 727

cl ~ 4.5

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 EXAMPLE CALCULATION
• GOAL: Find values of cl, L=0, and cm,c/4 for a NACA 2412 Airfoil
– Maximum thickness 12 % of chord
– Maximum chamber of 2% of chord located 40% downstream of the leading
edge of the chord line
• Check Out: http://www.pagendarm.de/trapp/programming/java/profiles/

NACA 2412

Root Airfoil: NACA 2412

Tip Airfoil: NACA 0012
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 EQUATIONS DESCRIBING MEAN CAMBER LINE: z = z(x)
z   x   x  2  • Equation describes the shape of the mean
   0.1250.8      camber line forward of the maximum
 c  fore c c
      camber position (applies for 0 ≤ z/c ≤ 0.4)

z   x   x  2  • Equation describes the shape of the mean

   0.05550.2      camber line aft of the maximum camber
 c  aft   c   c   position (applies for 0.4 ≤ z/c ≤ 1)

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EXPRESSIONS FOR MEAN CAMBER LINE SLOPE: dz/dx

z   x  x 
2
 
z      
x x
2

   0.1250.8         0.05550.2     
 c  fore   c   c    c  aft   c   c  
 dz    x   dz    x 
   0.1250.8  2     0.05550.8  2 
 dx  fore   c   dx  aft   c 
 dz   x  dz   x
   0.1  0.25     0.0444  0.111 
 dx  fore c  dx  aft c
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COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION: x → , x0 → 0
x 1  cos 

c 2

• Equation describes the shape of the • Equation describes the shape of

mean camber line slope forward of the mean camber line slope aft
the maximum camber position of the maximum camber
position
 dz   x  dz  x
   0.1  0.25     0. 0444  0. 111 
 dx  fore c  dx  aft c
 dz  0.25  dz  0.111
   0.1  1  cos     0.0444  1  cos  
 dx  fore 2  dx  aft 2
 dz   dz 
   0.125 cos  0.025    0.0555 cos   0.0111
 dx  fore  dx  aft
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 EXAMINE LIMITS OF INTEGRATION
• Coefficients A0, A1, and A2 are evaluated across the entire airfoil
– Evaluated from the leading edge to the trailing edge
– Evaluated from leading edge (=0) to the trailing edge (=)

• 2 equations the describe the fore and aft portions of the mean camber line
– Fore equation integrated from leading edge to location of maximum camber
– Aft equation integrated from location of maximum camber to trailing edge
– The location of maximum camber is (x/c)=0.4
– What is the location of maximum camber in terms of ?
x 1  cos  max camber
  0.4
c 2

cos  max camber  0.2

 max camber  78.463

 max camber  1.3694 rad
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 EXAMPLE: NACA 2412 CAMBERED AIRFOIL

dcl/d = 2

• Thin airfoil theory lift slope:

dcl/d = 2 rad-1 = 0.11 deg-1

• What is L=0?
– From data L=0 ~ -2º
– From theory L=0 = -2.07º

• What is cm,c/4?
– From data cm,c/4 ~ -0.045
– From theory cm,c/4 = -0.054
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