Analysis and Adjustment

of Observations

MUHAMMAD FAIZ BIN PA’SUYA

Department Surveying Science and Geomatic
 Theory of Errors

Measurement & Errors

• No measurement are exact and every
measurement contains errors
• Human limitations, imperfect
instruments, unfavorable physical
environment and improper measurement
routines -all measurement results most
likely contain errors.
• The true value of a measurement is
never known
• The exact sizes of the errors present are
always unknown
 Theory of Errors
Measurement Errors Sources
• Instrument errors;
– Caused by imperfections in instrument construction or
adjustment.
• Natural errors;
– Caused by changing conditions in the surrounding
enviroment;wind temperature, humidity, pressure,
refraction
• Personal errors;
– Due to limitations in human senses. The sizes of these
errors affected by personal ability.
 Theory of Errors
Types of Error
• Blunders
• Systematic errors
• Random errors
 Theory of Errors
Blunders
• Caused by confusion
• Caused by an observer’s carelessness
• Must be removed from any set of observations
• Examples;
– Mistakes in reading
– Blunders in recording
– Mistakes in setting the configuration of instrument
• Also known as mistakes or gross errors
 Theory of Errors
Systematic errors
• These errors follow some physical law
• Can be predicted
• Some errors are removed by following correct
measurement procedures
• Corrections for the errors can be computed and
applied to measurements
• Examples;
– Temperature and pressure
– Cyclic errors
 Theory of Errors
Random Errors
• The errors that remain after all blunders and
systematic errors have been removed
• The result of human and instrument imperfections
• Generally small value
• Examples;
– Imperfect centering
– Small errors in reading graduated scales
• Impossible to avoid random errors
 Theory of Errors
Precision & Accuracy
• Precision
– Degree of consistency between measurement and is
based on the sizes of the discrepancies in a data set
– Depend on enviroment stability, equipment quality,
observer’s skill and measurement procesured
• Accuracy
– Measure of the absolute nearness of a measured
quantity to its true value
– Can never be determined, always an unknown
 Theory of Errors

Precision & Accuracy

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Precise  Precise X Precise  Precise X

Accurate  Accurate  Accurate X Accurate X
WAYS OF ANALYSIS OF MEASURED DATA SET

1. Graphical representation -scatterplot,

frequency histogram

2. Numerical method - mean, median, mode,

standard deviation)
 ANALYSIS OF MEASURED DATA SET

Graphical representation
a. Scatterplot
• Summary of two variables,
usually drawn before working out
a linear correlation coefficient or
fitting a regression line
• Gives a good visual picture of the
relationship between the two
variables.
 ANALYSIS OF MEASURED DATA SET

Frequency histogram
• a bar graph plotted with
either class frequencies or
relative class frequencies
on the ordinate (Y-axis),
versus values of the class
interval bounds on the
abscissa (x-axis).
 ANALYSIS OF MEASURED DATA SET

(b) more precise

than (a) (zero
skewness)

(a) Normal
distribution
histogram (zero
(d) Negatively
skewness)
skewed
distribution
(positive
skewness)

(c) Positively skewed Types of data distributions (Histograms)

distribution (negative
skewness)
 ANALYSIS OF MEASURED DATA SET

2. Numerical method
• Numerical descriptors are used to
interpret its precision or quality
• three categories:
i. measures of central tendency,
ii. measures of data variation, and
iii. measures of relative standing.
 ANALYSIS OF MEASURED DATA SET

1. Arithmetic mean,
• average of the observations for a set of n observations,
y1, y2, . . . , yn

2. Median
• midpoint of a sample set when arranged in ascending
or descending order mode

3. Mode
• most frequently occurring value
 ANALYSIS OF MEASURED DATA SET

True value, μ
• a quantity’s theoretically correct or exact value

Error
• the difference between a measured quantity and its
true value
• the true value is simply the population’s arithmetic
mean
• indeterminate because true value of a measured
quantity is indeterminate - only theoretical quantities
 ANALYSIS OF MEASURED DATA SET
Most probable value, :
• Value for a measured quantity which, based on the
observations, has the highest probability of occurrence.
• simply the mean if the repeated measurements have the
same precision
Residual
• The difference between individual measured quantity and
the most probable value for that quantity
• term error is frequently used when residual is meant
• very similar and behave in the same manner with error
but, there is this theoretical distinction

where is the residual in the ith observation,

and is the most probable value for the

 ANALYSIS OF MEASURED DATA SET
Degrees of freedom
• number of observations that are in excess of the number
necessary to solve for the unknowns
• equals the number of redundant observations

Variance
• measures how far a set of numbers is spread out around
the mean and from each other
• the expected value of the squared deviation from the
mean
• A variance of zero indicates that all the values are
identical
• a small variance indicates that the data points tend to be
very close to the mean (expected value) and hence to
each other
Population variance

Sample variance

Standard error
• the square root of the population variance

• the larger the standard error, the more dispersed are the
values in the data set and the less precise is the
measurement
 ANALYSIS OF MEASURED DATA SET

Standard deviation, S
• the square root of the sample variance
• standard error cannot be determined- the standard
deviation is a practical expression for the precision of a
sample set of data

• explains the precision of sample data set

 Example
Example: Calculate the varians and standard deviation for X and Y observation

X Y (Xi-Xmean) (Yi-Ymean) (Xi-Xmean)² (Yi-Ymean)²

1.1 3.4 -0.14 0.08 0.0196 0.0064

1.2 3.2 -0.04 -0.12 0.0016 0.0144

1.3 3.3 0.06 -0.02 0.0036 0.0004

1.2 3.2 -0.04 -0.12 0.0016 0.0144

1.4 3.5 0.16 0.18 0.0256 0.0324

Total 6.2 16.6 0.052 0.068

Mean 1.24 3.32

Varians X = 0.052 / (5-1) Standard Deviation X = √ (0.0130)

= 0.0130 = ± 0.1140

Varians Y = 0.068 / (5-1) Standard Deviation Y = √ (0.0170)

= 0.0170 = ± 0.1308
 Least Square Adjustment (LSA)

• Most surveying observations must conform to certain geometrical

conditions
• The amounts by which they fail to meet these conditions are called
misclosures.
• They indicate the presence of random errors
• Random errors in surveying follow the mathematical law of probability
and are normally distributed
• Least squares is the most appropriate adjustment procedure to get THE
BEST ESTIMATE VALUE.
• Least squares is suitable for adjusting any of the basic types of surveying
observations
• LSA is used to solve a set of linear equations having more equations than
unknown variables.
 WHY NEED LSA??

• Surveying observations and measurements are not exact and never

known the true values
• True values do exist but cannot be determined
• The surveyor must have the skill and judgment to make accurate
measurement of angles, distances and differences in elevation to
get X, Y and Z coordinates
• The concepts of probability and statistics are needed to analyze
errors and to distribute them logically by mathematical model
• Though the exact value is never known but the best estimate value
of a group of measurements could be determined
• They are very important in geodetic surveying because the data
treatment and adjustment will ensure the quality of surveys
 Principle of LSA
 The sum of the squares of the residuals must be
minimized

 v  (v  v  v    v )  minimum
2 2
1
2
2
2
3
2
n

v 2
 0  minimum
x
With condition that the best estimated value for the quantity
obtained from repeated measurements of equal weight
 Principle of LSA

 If
 v1 
v    v  V V  minimum
2 T

V  2

 
   (v 2 )  (V TV )
vn    0  minimum
x x
 Method of LSA
• Observation Equations
• Condition Equations
• Combined Equation
 Method of LSA
Observation Equations
• La = F(Xa)
• Adjusted observation (La) is the function
of adjusted parameter (Xa) H
2

• Mathematical equation: L L 2
1

L1 = H2 – H1
L2 = H3 – H2 H
H3
1
L
L3 = H1 – H3 3
 Method of LSA

Condition Equations
• F(La) = 0  condition
• The function of adjusted observation (La)
must be satisfy the condition H 2

• Mathematical equation: L2
L
1

L1 + L2 + L3 = 0
H3
H1
L3
 Method of LSA
Combined Equation
• F(La,Xa) = 0  condition
• The function of adjusted observation (La) and
adjusted parameter (Xa) must be satisfy the
condition H2

• Mathematical equation: L
2
L
L1 – H 2 + H 1 = 0
1

L2 – H 3 + H 2 = 0 H3
H
L3 – H 1 + H 3 = 0 1
L3
 Example 1
Length AB was measured ten times and
recorded as shown. Calculate the most probable
value (MPV) of length AB using the following
method;
(a)Statistical mean
(b)Least-squares adjustment by the
observation equation method
(c)Matrix methods in least-squares
adjustment
 Solution
(a) Statistical mean
= (538.57+538.39+538.37+538.39+538.48 +538.49+538.33 +
538.46+538.47+538.55) /10
= 538.45m
(b) LSA - observation equation method
Let X = most probable value of the measured length and V= residual of
measured length
X = 538.57 + v1 X = 538.49 + v6 Remind!!
X = 538.39 + v2 X = 538.33 + v7
X = 538.37 + v3 X = 538.46 + v8
X = 538.39 + v4 X = 538.47 + v9
X = 538.55 + v10
X = 538.48 + v5
 Solution

2. Solve the residual in each of observation equation, and form

function

3. Take the derivative of function with respect to X, set it to ZERO

and solve for X
 Solution

4. Solve for X
 LEAST SQUARES SOLUTION IN MATRIX FORM
(c) LSA - Matrix methods


X  ( AT A) 1 AT L
 Form matrix L

L=
 Form matrix A , AT
Take the derivative of function with respect to X
 v1 
Rearrange  x 
v1=X- 538.57  
 v
 2 
v2=X-538.39  x 
 
A= AT= [ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1]
v3=X-538.37  v
v4=X-538.39  3 
 x 
v5=X- 538.48  v 
v6=X-538.49  4 
 x 
v7=X-538.33  v6 
v8=X-538.46  
 x 
v9=X- 538.47 
 7 
v
v10=X-538.55  x 
 
 v
 8 
 x 
  Using LSA matrix solution and solve:
  v9  
 x  X  ( AT A) 1 AT L
 v 
 10 
 x 
X = 538.45
 Example 2
Let the unknown distances AB and BC be x and y, respectively. These two
unknowns are related through the observations as follows:

observations contain errors

x + y = 393.65 x + y = 393.65+ v1
x=190.40 x=190.40 +v2
y=203.16 y=203.16+ v3
a) LSA - observation equation method

solving yields x = 190.43 and y = 203.19

x + y = 393.65+ v1
x=190.40 +v2
y=203.16+ v3

solving yields
x = 190.43
y = 203.19
 Adjustment of Level Nets

• Differential levelling observations are used

to determine differences in elevation

between stations.
• Observation equation :
 Example 3

BM X =100.00m Line Observed

Elevation
Difference, ED
4 1
1 5.10
2 2.34
C A 3 -1.25
7 B 5
4 -6.13
5 -0.68
6 -3.00
6 2
3 7 1.70

BM Y =107.50 m
 Solution

• Known parameter – BMX , Bmy (2)

• Unknown parameter – HA , HB, HC (3)
• Observation – ED1, ED2, ED3, ED4, ED5 , ED6, ED7 (7)

Mathematical model
ED1 =HA – BMX ED5 = HB – HA
ED2 =BMY – HA ED6 = HB – BMY
ED3 = HC – BMY ED7 = HC – HB
ED4 = BMX – HC
 Solution
Observation equation Replace HX and HY and ED1 –
ED1 + v1 = HA–BMX ED7 into the observation
equation and rearrange
ED2 + v2 = BMY – HA v1 + 105.10= HA
ED3 + v3 = HC – BMY v2 -105.16= -HA
ED4 + v4 = BMX – HC v3 +106.25= HC
ED5 + v5 = HB – HA v4 -106.13= – HC
ED6 + v6 = HB – BMY v5 - 0.68= HB – HA
ED7 + v7 = HC – HB v6 +104.50= HB
v7 +1.7= HC – HB
 Form matrix L

Remind!!
Matrix L

v1 + 105.10= HA
v2 -105.16=- HA
v3 +106.25= HC
v4 -106.13= – HC
v5 - 0.68= HB – HA
v6 +104.50= HB
v7 +1.7= HC – HB
 Form matrix A
Take the derivative of
function with respect to HA
rearrange
HB HC
v1 + 105.10= HA v1 = HA - 105.10  v1 v1 v1  matrix A
 H H B H C 
v2 -105.16= HA v2 = -HA +105.16  A 
 v 2 v 2  v 2 
v3 +106.25= HC v3 = HC -106.25  H
 A
H B H C 

  v3  v 3  v3 
v4 -106.13= – HC v4 = – HC +106.13  
 H A H B H C 
v5 - 0.68= HB – HA v5 = HB – HA + 0.68  v 4

 v 4 v 5 

 H A H B H C 
v6 +104.50= HB v6 = HB -104.50  v 6 v6 v6 
 
v7 +1.7= HC – HB  H C  H B H C 
v7 = HC + HB +1.7  v 7 v 7  v 7 
 
 H A H B H C 
 
Calculate X  ( AT A) 1 AT L

 3 1 0 0.3810 0.1429 0.0476

( AT A)   1 3  1, ( AT A) 1   0.149 0.4286 0.1429,
 0  1 3  0.0476 0.1429 0.3810
210.94 105.1410
  
A L  102.12 , X
T
 104.4829
 214.08 106.1876

The most probable elevations for A, B, and C are

105.1410m, 104.4829m, and 106.1876m
 STANDARD DEVIATION

• Compute Residual , V= Ax - L
• Compute Reference standard deviation
Non matrix form matrix form

• Standard deviations of the individual adjusted

quantities are

Where qxixi the diagonal element in the ith row and ith column of
matrix (A*AT)-1 are the so-called covariance matrices
 STANDARD DEVIATION
• Based on Example 3 (leveling) where :

X=

• Compute adjusted residual, v

 STANDARD DEVIATION
• Compute Reference standard deviation

Or using matrix method

 STANDARD DEVIATION
• Compute matrix (ATA)-1 to determine covariance
matrices
0.3810 0.1429 0.0476
0.1429 0.4286 0.1429
0.0476 0.1429 0.3810

• Standard deviations of the individual adjusted

quantities are

0.05 x √ (0.3810) 0.05 x √ (0.4286)

A ±0.0309m B ± 0.0327m

0.05 x √ (0.3810)
C ± 0.0309m
 Exercise
Adjust the level net of figure below . Observed elevation differences for
courses 1 through 5 (given in order) are and arrows on the courses in the
figure indicate the direction of levelling.
Line Elevation
differences
1 10.997
2 -9.169
3 3.532
4 4.858
5 -2.202
 WEIGHTS OF OBSERVATIONS

• In surveying, measurements are adjusted to force

that geometric closure
• measurement with high precision, should receive a
relatively small portion of the overall correction in
the adjustment and vice versa.
• Weights are used to control the sizes of corrections
applied to measurements in an adjustment
• The more precise an observation, the higher its
weight correction sizes
• weight should be inversely proportional to variance
 WEIGHTS OF OBSERVATIONS
WEIGHTS OF OBSERVATIONS

• the weight for observation i is:

 02
wi  2
i
• If the weight, wi = 1, then 02  i2
02 is the variance of an observation of unit weight (reference variance)
• Reference variance- an arbitrary scale factor (a priori)
• A convenient value is 1 (one) 1
wi 
 i2
 WEIGHTS OF OBSERVATIONS

Weighted Mean

• If there are n observation, weighted mean can be

determined by:
 Example 1
Simple Weighted Mean

A distance is measured three times, giving values of 151.9, 152.5, and 152.5.
Compute the mean.

151.9  152.5  152.5

y  152.3
3
Same answer by weighted mean. The value 152.5 appears twice so it can be
given a relative weight of 2.

151.9  2152.5
y  152.3
3
 Example 2
A line was measured twice, using two different total stations. The
distance observations are listed below along with the computed
standard deviations based on the instrument specifications. Compute
the weighted mean.

D1 = 1097.253 m σ1 = 0.010 m
D2 = 1097.241 m σ2 = 0.005 m

Solution: First, compute the weights.

1 1 2
w1  2   10,000 m
 1 (0.010m) 2
1 1 2
w2  2   40, 000 m
 2 (0.005m) 2
 Example 2

Now, compute the weighted mean.

10,000m  2 1097.253m  40,000m  2 1097.241m

D
10,000m 2  40,000m  2
D  1097.243m

Notice that the value is much closer to the more

precise observation.
Standard Deviations – Weighted Case

• When computing a weighted mean, we want an indication of

standard deviation of observations.
• Since there are different weights, there will be different standard
deviations
• A single representative value is the standard deviation of an
observation of unit weight
• We can also compute standard deviation for a particular
observation and compute the standard deviation of the weighted
mean
Weights for Leveling
• For differential levelling, it is conventional to consider
entire lines of levels rather than individual setups.
Weights are:
i. Inversely proportional to line length
ii. Inversely proportional to number of setups
Choose any number
Example : Weight for Differential Leveling
Four different routes were taken to determine the
elevation difference between two benchmarks (see table).
Computed the weighted mean elevation difference.
Weights: (note that weights are multiplied by 12 to produce integers, but
this is not necessary)

Compute weighted mean:

12  25.35  6  25.41  4  25.38  2  25.30
M
12  6  4  2
608.78
M  25.366ft
24
SUG610 Adjustment Computation

Example 4
Adjustment of Level Nets
(Weighted Case)
BM X =100.00m

weight
4 1

C A
7 B 5

6 2
3

BM Y =107.50 m
SUG610 Adjustment Computation

Example 4
Adjustment of Level Nets
(Weighted Case)
BM X =100.00m
AT
=

4 1

C A A= W=
7 B 5

6 2
3 Weight matrix
(diagonal)
BM Y =107.50 m
SUG610 Adjustment Computation

Example 4
Adjustment of Level Nets
(Weighted Case)
BM X =100.00m solve

4 1
=
weighted
C A
7 B 5

compare

6 2 A=105.14
=
3 B= 104.48 unweighted
C=106.19
BM Y =107.50 m
 STANDARD DEVIATION (WEIGHT CASE)

• Compute Residual , V= AX - L
• Compute Reference standard deviation
Non matrix form matrix form

• Standard deviations of the individual adjusted

quantities are

Where qxixi the diagonal element in the ith row and ith column of
matrix (ATAW)-1 are the so-called covariance matrices
 STANDARD DEVIATION (WEIGHT CASE)

1) Compute Residual , V= AX - L 0.0500

0.0100
V= -0.0530
V= - -0.0670
0.0190
-0.0110
0.0080

2) Compute referenced std

0.0500
0.0100
= [ 0.0500 0.0100 -0.0530 -0.0670 0.0190 -0.0110 0.0080]
-0.0530
= 0.0460 -0.0670
(7-3) 0.0190
=0.1072 -0.0110
0.0080
3) Compute matrix (ATWA)-1 to determine covariance matrices

0.0933 0.0356 0.0133

0.0356 0.0770 0.0289
0.0133 0.0289 0.0733

4) Standard deviations of the individual adjusted quantities are

0.1072 x √ (0.0933) 0.1072 x √ (0.0770)

A ± 0.0327 m B ± 0.0297 m

0.1072 x √ (0.0733)
C ± 0.0290 m