TRANSPORT IN

ANIMALS
SIMPLE ANIMALS
 Sponges - water passes through a series of
chambers on the body to the spongocoel where
enough gas exchange happens directly with the
cells.
 Cnidarians- each cell is in direct contact with the
external environment
 Roundworms- body fluids is used for circulation
 Circulation
• Open circulatory system – the circulating fluid
does not pass through enclosed tubes, it is
pumped by the heart to a network of channels
and cavities throughout the body.

• Closed circulatory system – circulating fluid

passes within blood vessels that transport blood
away from and back to the heart.
 THE HUMAN
TRANSPORT SYSTEM
The Human Transport System
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• It supplies gases, nutrients, and hormones to the
different parts of the body.
• It collects metabolic wastes for acid-base balance
and immunologic reactions.
• It is also indispensable in regulating homeostatic
reactions of the body.
HEART BLOOD BLOOD VESSEL
HEART Pumps blood to all parts of the body
In the average life span, the heart beats around 2.5
billion times without interruption

A normal adult heart beats around 72 times and

pumps around 5.5 liters of blood.

Your heartbeat can be fast as when you run, or slow

when you are sleeping.
The heart can beat 3 times as fast as normal rate during a
strenuous exercise or when you get over excited, (180-
195 beats/minute)
 It is composed of cardiac muscle (striated
and involuntary) HEART
Septum divides the heart into two sides.
Right side- receives deoxygenated blood
Left side- receives oxygenated blood

Atria- upper chambers

Ventricles- lower chambers

atrio-ventricular valves- one way valves, located

between upper and lower chambers
The heart can beat 3 times as fast as normal rate during a
strenuous exercise or when you get over excited, (180-
195 beats/minute)
Flow of blood
• Non-oxygenated blood will enter the superior vena
cava and fill the right atrium.
• The tricuspid valve will open and bring blood to the
right ventricle.
• From the right ventricle, blood id pumped into the
pulmonary arteries and then flows to the capillaries of
the air sacs in the lungs.
• Once oxygenated, the blood flows to the pulmonary
veins into the left atrium.
• Themitral calve opens and oxygenated blood is
pumped into the left ventricle.
• Blood fills up this chamber creating an increase
pressure which initiates the opening of aortic valve.
Flow of blood
• Thelubb dupp sound that you hear using a stethoscope is the sound
produced by the heart during contraction and relaxation.
• The lubb sound is caused by the closing the atrioventricular valves
during ventricular contraction, forcing blood to the sinoventricular
valves.
• Thedupp sound is caused by the snapping sound of the SV valves as
blood moves from the ventricles to the atria.

• Systemic circulation begins when oxygenated blood is delivered

from the aorta to the different parts of the body.
BLOOD
• Blood is the internal circulating medium of the human body.
• Its
main function is to carry nutrients and oxygen to the cells
of the body and carry away carbon dioxide and nitrogenous
waste from body cells.
• 55% plasma, 45% blood cells
• Red blood cells (erythrocytes) – transport oxygen and carbon
dioxide
• White blood cells (leucocytes) – for defense and immunity
• Blood platelets (thrombocytes) – essential in blood clotting
 BLOOD VESSELS
• It serves as highways through which blood is circulated in the body.
• Arteries are thick-walled vessels which allow the passage of oxygenated blood, except the
pulmonary artery.
• Aorta is the largest artery in the body and the only artery that leads out of the left ventricle.
• Veins are thin-walled vessels that carry non-oxygenated blood towards the heart, except for
pulmonary vein.
• Superior and inferior vena cava are the two large veins in the body.
• Capillaries are microscopic blood vessels that carry blood throughout the tissues and organs
connecting small veins and arteries. They are very thin and serves as sites through which
materials between the blood and cells are exchanged.
VALVES
• These are flaps of tissues that prevent the
backward flow or regurgitation of blood.
• The closure of valves create heart sounds heard
during auscultation, the act of listening to internal
sound of the body that usually uses a stethoscope.
 PATTERNS OF CIRCULATION
• BLOOD CIRCULATION: pulmonary and systemic

• Pulmonary circulation is the movement of blood from the heart to

the lungs back to the heart.
• Systemic circulation follows pulmonary circulation. Once the blood
is in the aorta, it will move out of the heart to be circulated to all
parts of the body and other subsystems.
• Coronary circulation – subsystem that supplies blood to the heart
itself.
• Renal circulation – another subsystem that moves blood through
the kidneys and back to the heart.
GAS EXCHANGE IN
ANIMALS
 WAYS OF GAS EXCHANGE
• SPONGES – gas exchange is carried out in simple way by diffusion through
their cell membranes.

• Aquatic organisms (protists) – gas exchange is direct with the water in

their surrounding through cell membrane.
• Fishes – two-chambered heart; when atrium receives the blood,
it is channeled to the ventricle; the contraction of the ventricle of
the heart pumps blood to the conus arteriosus that pulsates and
transfers blood to the gills where gas exchange happens. Gas
exchange is made through countercurrent flow, where blood
and water meet in opposite directions.

• Amphibians – three-chambered heart with two atria and one

ventricle; they can live both on land and in water. Under water,
they use their skin for gas exchange (cutaneous breathing). On
land, they use their lungs and sometimes their moist skin.
 THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• Breathing is an involuntary process that occurs simultaneously
with the circulation of the blood.
• It is simply defined as the process of inhaling and exhaling.
• It involves the interactions of the diaphragm, ribs, and abdomen.
AIR PASSAGE AND GAS EXCHANGE
• Externalrespiration is the exchange of gases
between the atmosphere and the lungs.

• Internal respiration is gas exchange between

cells and the blood.
External Respiration

1. Nose
 Nostrils serve as the entrance for the passage of air into
the body.
The nostrils open into the nasal passages, the cavities
that extend from the nostrils to the throat.
The mucous membrane, a layer of specialized cells, lines
the walls of the nasal passages. These secretes mucus
(moist, thick and gummy).
External Respiration

2. Pharynx
 It is also known as the throat.
 It contains the passageways for food and air.
 Epiglottis is a flap of cartilage that presses down and
covers the opening of the air passage when food is
swallowed.
External Respiration

3. Larynx
 It is also called the voice box or Adam’s apple.
 It is primarily involve in sound production.
 Sounds are produced when air is forced past two vocal
cords that stretch across the larynx.
External Respiration
4. Trachea
 It is also called the windpipe located in front of
esophagus.
 It is lined with mucus membrane and cilia.

5. Bronchi
 two hollow branches of trachea,
 each bronchus is attached to the lungs
 the inner lining of bronchi is lined with cilia and mucus
that help filter air.
External Respiration
6. Lungs
 large spongy and elastic sac-like structures suspended
from each side of the heart, inside the chest cavity.
 inside the lungs, the bronchus divides into smaller
branches, the bronchial tubes.
 these bronchial tubes branch repeatedly into even
smaller microscopic tubes called bronchioles.
 each bronchiole opens into thin-walled bulb-shaped
structures called air sacs or alveoli cells.
Internal Respiration
• It involves gas exchange between the blood and cells of the
body.
• In the air sacs, oxygen diffuses through the capillaries and
into the blood stream.
ANIMAL DEFENSE
RESPONSES
DEFENSES OF THE HUMAN BODY
•First line – integumentary system
•Second line – nonspecific immunity
•Third line – specific immunity
TYPES OF IMMUNITY
• Inborn immunity – is a genetic proposition.
We receive this type of immunity from our
parents and ancestors.
• Acquired immunity – antibodies could be
obtained when we are exposed to antigens.
It happens either natural or artificial manner.
 o Naturally acquired immunity
• It occurs when the person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops
the disease, and becomes immune as a result of primary immune
response.
• Active acquired immunity is obtained once a person comes on
direct contact with a disease which provides permanent immunity.

• Passive acquired immunity is obtained during fetal development

through mother’s placenta and breastfeeding upon rearing the
newborn. It is acquired promptly after a person has been exposed to
a precarious disease, which could be detrimental to person’s health.
 o Artificially acquired immunity
• It can also be in an active or passive form.
• It
can be introduced through vaccine, a substance that
contains the antigens.
 ANTIBODIES (immunoglobulins)

• Theseare proteins produced from the circulating lymphocytes, have

the capacity to ward off foreign substances.
• Theydo not kill pathogens directly; they cause destruction of
pathogens by targeting them for an attack by other nonspecific cells.
• IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, IgD

• Antigens are foreign substances which could be detrimental to

health.
• IgG– mainly present in circulation which comes in contact directly
with pathogens. It is the only antibody that can cross placenta from
the mother to the fetus because of its small molecular size.

• IgA – mostly exists in bodily secretions such as saliva, tears,

colostrum, and breastmilk, mucosal linings of the digestive
and respiratory tracts.

• IgM– the broadest, they are the first to encounter the

pathogens that reach the bloodstream.
• IgE – plays a big role in allergic reactions, particularly
in stimulating the release of histamines.

• IgD – signifies antigen-antibody type of differentiation.

These are attached to the surface of B-cells which are
produced by the bone marrow that generate antibodies to
specific antigens.
• Vaccination is the process of introducing an
attenuated or weakened antigen in a susceptible
host.
• It is done for the purpose of increasing immunity
against a particular infectious agent.
ANIMAL HORMONES
General Biology 2 for Senior High School by Luisito Evangelista, pp. 61-64
• Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by
glands of the body whose effects are felt in other
parts.
• Pheromones are chemicals that are released to the
environment by animals.
• Ecdysone – prothoracicotropic hormone that
activates prothoracic glands that induces ecdysis or
molting.
• Endocrine glands are organs that are specialized to
secrete hormones; two types – endocrine and exocrine
• Endocrine or ductless glands release their secretions or
products directly into the blood stream.
• Exocrine glands release their secretions or products
through the ducts.
Identify the following
1. A hormone that stimulates the mammary glands to produce
milk.
2. An endocrine gland responsible for raising the calcium level in
the blood.
3. The master gland that controls the release of other hormones
4. Chemicals that are released to the surrounding environment
by animals.
5. A hormone that lowers blood glucose level.
Identify the following
• A hormone that stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk.
Prolactin
• An endocrine gland responsible for raising the calcium level in the blood.
Parathyroid gland
• The master gland that controls the release of other hormones.
Pituitary gland
• Chemicals that are released to the surrounding environment by animals.
Pheromones
• A hormone that lowers blood glucose level.
Insulin
SENSORY AND COORDINATING
SYSTEMS OF ANIMALS
• Sponges – lack nervous system
• Cnidarians – simplest nervous system; nerve net
• Free-livingflatworms – presence of nerve cords
from which peripheral nerves emanate; possess a
primitive brain
• Insects
and arthropods – central coordination of
complex responses to stimuli have increasingly
become localized in the simple brain.
• Neuron is the primary structural and
functional component of the nervous system.
It is designed for receiving information,
transmitting electrical impulses, and
influencing other neurons or effector tissues.
PARTS:
• CELL BODY – central part of the neuron that
contains the nucleus.
• DENDRITES – transmit impulse toward from
the cell body
• AXONS – transmit impulse away from the cell
body
Classification of neurons
• Sensory or afferent neurons – information from the
receptors in the periphery is directed to the CNS for
interpretation and integration.
• Somatic sensory neurons – monitor external
environment
• Visceral sensory neurons – monitor internal
conditions
 Classification of neurons
• Motor or efferent neurons – relay information from the CNS to
effectors in the body found in tissues, organs, or organ systems.
• Somatic nervous system – involves nerves that innervate the
skeletal muscles; there is a conscious control over its actions
• Autonomic nervous system – innervates all the other peripheral
effectors other than the skeletal muscles; signal travel along one
axon, relayed across a synapse, move along a second axon to the
final effector organ.
 Classification of neurons
• Interneurons or associations neurons – link a sensory neuron to
a motor neuron.

• Neurosecretory neurons – occupy a central position in

neuroendocrine interactions. They serve as channels through
which a multitude of afferent stimuli, after being processed, are
channeled to a variety of endocrine stations, which subsequently
exert control over these effector organs.
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• It is composed of the brain and the spinal cord.
• Brain is the central processor of information in the
nervous system.
• Information or impulses travel along nerve fibers as
electrical signals.
 THE BRAIN
• Brainstem controls involuntary actions
• Cerebellum coordinates movements of
the muscles so that walking is smooth
and balanced.
• Cerebrum is the largest part of the
brain; divided into halves or
hemispheres; the outer layer has special
areas to receive messages about sight,
touch, hearing and taste while other
areas control movement, intelligence,
and personality.
SPINAL CORD
• It contains the central canal
filled with cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF), gray matter containing
cell bodies and short fibers,
and white matter containing
long fibers of interneurons that
run together in bundles called
tracts.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• It is divided into the somatic division and autonomic division.
• It
also includes all of the cranial and spinal nerves that project
outwards from the central nervous system, making the name
peripheral NS appropriate.
• It consists of nerves located outside of the CNS.
• It receives information from the outside and brings it to the CNS
and also effectors such as muscles and glands.
THE SENSORY ORGANS
1 Touch sensation is a function of the skin. Diffused throughout
the skin are nerve endings that receive stimuli from the
environment and then relay these to the brain.

Free nerve endings are associated with pain and itch sensations
and detection of the temperature.

Encapsulated nerve endings are branched axons enclosed in a

discrete connective tossue capsule.
THE SENSORY ORGANS
2 Gustation or taste sensation is the primary
responsibility of taste buds on the surface of the
tongue.

Types of tastes: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and

umami

Humans have a significantly lower threshold for bitter-tasting

food.
Sense of taste is very much related to sense of olfaction.
THE SENSORY ORGANS
3 Ears are the organs for hearing. It is divided into
external, middle and inner parts.

External ear extends from the auricle or pinna to the external

auditory meatus. This segment conducts sound waves from the
environment toward the tympanic membrane or the eardrum

Middle ear refers to the tympanic cavity, air-filled chamber that

houses three smallest bones (malleus, incus, stapes)
The inner ear consists of the cochlea, which transmits sound impulses
to the brain by auditory nerve and vestibuar system (maintains
balance and spatial orientation)
THE SENSORY ORGANS
4
Olfaction is the primary function of the nose.

It is elicited by the olfactory neuroepithelium in the nasal

cavity of the nosee.

It is a modified form of respiratory epithelium that contains

three types of cells: the olfactory receptor cell, the supporting
cell, and the basal epithelial cell.
THE SENSORY ORGANS
5 Sense of vision is made possible by a highly specialized
organ that is the eye.
It is composed of three concentric layers: outer fibrous layer
formed by the sclera and cornea , a middle vascular layer
composed of the choroid, ciliary body, and iris, and an inner
nervous layer, the retina.

The photoreceptor neurons in the retina collect light and send signals to
a network of neurons that generate electrical impulses going to the
brain.
The brain then process these impulses and give information about what
we are seeing.
NUTRITION AND FOOD
PROCESSING IN
ANIMALS
 Vitamins are organic compounds that
function as co-enzymes and co-factors of
enzymes.

 Water-soluble vitamins such as vitamin C

and vitamin B are transported as free
compounds in the blood and serve as co-
enzymes in metabolic reactions.

 Fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamins A,

D, E, and K are transported in the blood
as complexes that are inked to lipids.
 Minerals are inorganic molecules
that provide ions essential for the
functioning of many enzymes or
proteins.

 Significant amounts of ions may

be lost by the body through
sweating, defecating, and
urinating and thus must be
replenished.

 DIGESTION IN LOWER FORMS OF
ANIMALS
• Sponges – each individual cell is responsible for the
procurement of food that is mixed with water inside the
spongocoel; some cells do it through phagocytosis, others use
flagella.
• Intracellulardigestion – takes place inside the cell through
the help of enzymes.

• Cnidarians – extracellular digestion that occurs throughout

the gastrovascular cavity.
• Roundworms/nematodes –
most primitive type of gut or
digestive tube
• Digestive tube is specialized in
different regions where part is
involved in ingestion, storage,
digestion, and absorption.

• Earthworms – the digestive tube

is complete.
THE HUMAN
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
• Foodis ingested through the mouth, chewed and ground into
smaller sizes with the help of teeth, then mixed with saliva,
and pushed backward by the tongue.

• Food is then swallowed and moved to the pharynx, a common

passageway for food and air.

• The epiglottis closes the opening to the lungs to prevent

entrance of food and fluids to the airways.
• From the oropharynx, the bolus of swallowed
substances now enters the esophagus and
presses down the length of the tube by
alternating contraction and relaxation of
muscles called peristalsis.
• The opening into the stomach is guarded by the
cardiac sphincter which assists in preventing
regurgitation of acidic chyme from the stomach.
• Stomach served as a temporary storage of food;
chemical digestion also takes place in the stomach.
• Thefood enters small intestine which is a long coiled
tube where food undergoes final digestion and
absorption.
• Food enters the duodenum from the stomach by the
pyloric sphincter.
•From the small intestine, undigested food is
channeled into the large intestine.
•Water and ions are reabsorbed and the bulk
that remains is then stored for a while until
mass movements occur and defecation reflex
is initiated.
Function of Enzymes in Chemical Digestion
• Enzymes are present in large amounts in different
forms of the digestive tract, beginning from the oral
cavity where salivary amylase and lingual lipase are
found.

• Pepsinogen is produced by the chief cells and it is then

transformed by HCl into the active form, pepsin.
 Function of Enzymes in Chemical Digestion
• Pancreatic juices are produced by pancreas via ampulla of vater, a
duct formed by the union of the pancreatic duct and the common
bile duct.
• These juices include trypsinogen (active enzyme trypsin; break
down proteins into amino acid).
• Chymotrypsinogen – breaks down proteins into aromatic amino
acids
• Pancreatic lipase breaks down triglycerides into FA and glycerol
• Nucleases and pancreatic amylase – breaks down starch,
glycogen, and most carbohydrates
 Function of Enzymes in Chemical Digestion
• “brush border” enzymes – function to further cleave the
now broken-down products of digestion into more
readily absorbed particles. (sucrase, lactase, maltase)
Accessory Glands of Digestive System

• It
contributes to make an organ of digestion more
versatile.
 LIVER
It is the largest gland of the body. Its basic structural
component is the hepatocyte.

Blood circulates through the liver by portal vein and hepatic vein.
The liver neutralizes and eliminates toxic substances from the passing
blood. It stores vitamins, iron, and glucose.

It also converts highly toxic ammonia into urea, a more tolerable form.
It produces bile, a fluid that contains cholesterol, bile acids, and bilirubin
which aid in lipid digestion. It is stored and concentrated in gallbladder.
 GALLBLADDER
Canaliculi from within the liver merge to form bile ducts or
intrahepatic ducts; the ducts then drain into the right and left hepatic
ducts which then merge o form the common hepatic duct.

The gallbladder’s duct is called the cystic duct.

Bile flows from the liver canaliculi to the hepatic ducts and then to the
common hepatic duct. It may flow into the gallbladder via cystic duct to be
stored, concentrated and used at later time.
 PANCREAS

Pancreas in both an endocrine and exocrine gland.

Islets of Langerhans are responsible for the secretion of insulin and

glucagon (endocrine function)

Acinar glands secrete digestive enzymes into the duodenum by the

pancreatic duct and ampulla of vater.
REPRODUCTION AND
DEVELOPMENT IN
ANIMALS
•TWO TYPES:

1. Asexual Reproduction
2. Sexual Reproduction
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

- involves single parent

- no sex cells involved.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

- two parents involve

- involves gametes
 Parthenogenesis
- females produce offspring from unfertilized
egg
Hermaphrodite
- individual that has both ovaries and testes
- common to parasitic worm and liver flukes
- earthworms are also hermaphroditic
Protogyny – a change from female to male

Protandry – a change from male to female

*It is only limited to a few, dominant

males.
Vertebrates
External fertilization – the egg and the sperm
meet outside the body of the female
Internal fertilization – embryonic development
could be through oviparity, ovoviviparity, and
viviparity.
Oviparity – eggs are fertilized internally, deposited
outside the mother’s body to complete their
development.
Ovoviviparity – fertilized eggs are retained inside
the mother to complete its development, but
embryo gets nourishment from the yolk.
Viviparity – the young develops inside the mother
and obtains its nourishment directly from the blood
of the mother through the umbilical cord.
 STAGES OF MAMMALIAN ANIMAL
DEVELOPMENT

Fertilization Cleavage Gastrulation Organogenesis

1 Fertilization – refers to the fusion of the egg and
sperm that results in the formation of a zygote.

2 Cleavage – series of cell division without an increase in

its size. It ends with the formation of a blastula, called
blastocyst
3
Gastrulation – stage that produces three primary germ
layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm)

4 Organogenesis – formation of the organs from the

primary layers. It is initiated with the formation of the
notochord and hollow dorsal nerve cord in the process
called neurulation.
 FEEDBACK
MECHANISMS
Homeostasis means maintaining a relatively stable
internal physiological environment in the body of
organisms; otherwise the organism could die.

Feedback mechanisms – is a loop system wherein

the system responds to perturbation.

Temperature, pH, oxygen, glucose, calcium, and

other factors must remain relatively constant for cells
to function efficiently.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM
• Itis a regulatory system in which an increase in
the concentration of a substance inhibits the
continued synthesis of that substance, and vice
versa.
• If conditions deviate from a set point,
biochemical reactions will try to put it back to
the normal set point.
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP
response
return to
perturbing factor the set
point

effector causes changes

Negative
stimulus to compensate for
feedback loop
deviation
deviation completed
from the
set point

Integrating
center
sensor constantly
compares
monitors condition
conditions to
the set point
•Negative feedback involves antagonistic effectors.
When the activity of one effector is increased, the
activity of an antagonistic effector is decreased.

•All of these are processed in an integrating center.

•The integrating center is a particular region in the

brain or spinal cord.
Control Mechanism
• Plants and animals respond to its
environment by a basic regulatory system:

Signal(or stimulus)  sensor (receptor) 

control center or integrator  effector 
response
 TEMPERATURE REGULATION
THERMOREGULATION It may refer to endothermy to ectothermy.

Endotherms (warm-blooded organisms) create

most of their heat via metabolic processes.

Ectotherms (cold-blooded) use external sources of

temperature to regulate their body temperature.
 • The body then responds to sugar fluctuation by the
mechanism below:

Increased glucose pancreas  insulin  receptors in liver,

muscles, other cells  increase glucose uptake from blood
into cells  increased production of glycogen (liver, muscle) or
fat (adipose cells)  blood (glucose) decrease

Decreased glucose pancreas  glucagon  liver  (a)

convert glycogen  glucose; (b) convert amino acids and other
molecules glucose (gluconeogenesis) ; (c) converts fats
glycerol + 3 fatty acids  released into blood  glucose
increase
 It accelerates a change further in
the same direction.
POSITIVE
FEEDBACK
MECHANISM The effector drives an activity farther
from the set point thus making the
system more unstable.